Koeta-Radja

Properties3
descriptionKota Radja (also Kotaradja, Koeta-Radja; modern Banda Aceh) was the capital of the Dutch Gouvernement Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden and the principal city of Atjeh. By 1926 it served as the starting point for automobile travel across Sumatra to Padang, symbolising the transformation of transport infrastructure following the pacification.
tagsplace, city, capital, aceh, sumatra, colonial, colonial-capital, government-seat, achehnese-history, hoofdplaats, atjeh, administrative-center, town, acheh, fortified, headquarters, groot-atjeh, 20th-century, aceh-proper, coast, achehnese, concept, dutch, sultanate, military, kraton, van-heutsz, van-daalen, sabang, oelèë-lheue, museum, atjeh-instituut, dutch-colonial, 19th-century, aceh-war, military-base, koetaradja, administration, marechaussee, administrative, medicine, public-health, 1937
aliasesKuta Raja, Kutaraja, Kutaraja (Banda Aceh), Banda Aceh, Kota Radja, Kotaradja, Kota Raja, capital of Atjeh, Koetaradja, Kutaradja, Kota Radja (Atjeh), Banda Acheh, Bandah Acheh, Bandar Aceh, the Kutaradja of the Dutch concentration, Banda Atjeh, Banda, Banda-Acheh, Bandar Acheh, Acheh capital, Capital of Acheh, Kota Acheh, hoofdplaats Atjeh, Acheen capital, Koeta Radja, Koetaraja, Kraton, Kota-Radja, Kraton (Koeta Radja), Keraton, Sultan's palace, Kota Radja Atjeh, Kotta-Radja, Kuta Radja, Kotja-Radja, Atjeh's chief place, Bandjar (Banda Aceh), Bandjar, Kota Raoja, Koeta-Radja, Banda Aceh (historical Koeta Radja), onderafdeeling Koetaradja

41 min read

The colonial capital

Koeta-Radja was the hoofdplaats of the gewest of Aceh. The end-point of the route from the Blang via Medan — “vanwaar men met de trein in twee dagen in Koeta-Radja, de hoofdplaats van het gewest was” — the capital was the seat of the Dutch military and civilian administration of Aceh. The Soos (Sociëteit, officers’ club) of Koeta-Radja was the social centre of the colonial officer corps; the captain of the 1e Divisie Marechaussee uit Blang Kedjeren told his Hotel de Boer story at the Soos around 1933.

The Meusigit Raja at Koeta-Radja

The Meusigit Raja is the well-known Mohammedan place of prayer in Aceh’s capital — said to stand on the site where the first mosque of Koeta Radja was built during the reign of the Acehnese sun-king, Sultan Iskandar Muda. At the historic storming of this mosque by the Dutch troops in April 1873, the building burned down and was later completely demolished. Van Swieten brought about that the colonial government, entirely at its own expense, built a new mosque, given as a gift to the Acehnese population “to make them forget the suffering of the war.” The grievances of the Koeta Radja mosque were sometimes expressed thus: the mosque was festively illuminated on the birthday of H.M. the Queen, but on the Mohammedan feast-days only the ordinary illumination was lit. The building — designed by the B.O.W. (Burgerlijke Openbare Werken — Civil Public Works) in Byzantine style, executed by the lieutenant of the Chinese at Koeta Radja — never enjoyed particular popularity with the population.

The dominee’s post

“Er was in Koeta Radja een dominee geplaatst” — a dominee was placed in Koeta-Radja. The post of the Inlands Godsdienstleraar attached to the garrison of Koeta-Radja was the post Dominee Thenu accepted in 1894. The dominee visited the zieken in the hospitaal and held kerkdiensten for the garnizoen. Newcomers to Aceh always started at Koeta-Radja. “Als Dominee Thenu iets ongunstigs over een post in Koeta-Radja meldde, was de toestand onhoudbaar” — if Dominee Thenu reported something unfavourable about a post “in Koeta-Radja,” it meant the situation was untenable.

The funeral of Dominee Thenu (11 May 1937)

When Dominee Thenu died on 11 May 1937, his funeral was held at Koeta-Radja. Four retired M.W.O.-ridders — Salawono (3e kl.), Pattiasina, Kazen and Pattipuluhu — acted as slippendragers; a Marechaussee brigade served as vuurpeleton; he was buried at Peutjoet. “Vóór zijn kerkje in Koeta-Radja richtte Atjeh voor hem een standbeeld op” — before his little church in Koeta-Radja, Aceh erected for him a statue.

Account from Als officier van gezondheid naar Nederlandsch-Indië (Wøller)

Dr. Johan Wøller, describing the fertile northern and eastern lowlands of Atjeh that he sailed past in April 1904, noted that these had “formerly independent or vassal states under the sultan of Groot-Atjeh with his capital Kota Radja.” During the Aceh War, he recorded, “in December of the same year [1873] a new expeditionary army of 8,000 men and the entire fleet, that was available, arrived. Now Kota Radja was conquered, and with that the war first began, that would last so long and be so bloody.”

Account from Nederlandsch Indië Platen Atlas (1926) — Kota Radja

The atlas, in its chapter on transport (Verkeer), uses Kota Radja as its benchmark for the revolutionary improvement in Sumatran road infrastructure: “thans kan men per auto van Kota-Radja (in Atjeh) uit, Padang bereiken!” (now one can reach Padang by automobile, starting from Kota-Radja in Atjeh!). This statement is presented in stark contrast to conditions twenty-five years earlier, when Sumatra could only be crossed “slechts deels te voet, te paard of per korretje met veel moeite en opoffering van tijd” (only partly on foot, on horseback, or by small cart, with much effort and sacrifice of time).

The atlas also mentions the cemetery at Peutjot near Kota Radja, which was “voornamelijk bestemd voor de op de verschillende expedities in Atjeh gesneuvelden” (primarily intended for those who fell on the various expeditions in Atjeh), their names carved into the stone walls of the entrance.

Early twentieth-century printing at Koetaradja (1925)

Koetaradja served as a printing centre for Acehnese religious texts in the early twentieth century. The Nalam Mo’lôt and a local translation of the Akidat al-awāmm were both produced around 1925 in an anthology issued as the Madjmit rasa’il — “Nalam Mo’lôt en de door Kreemer aan hem toegeschreven Atjêhse vertaling van de ‘Akidat al‑awāmm’, beide in een omstreeks 1925 te Koetaradja uitgegeven Madjmit rasa’il.” These publications were likely intended for use in pesantren and surau, reflecting the continued vitality of Acehnese Islamic scholarship after the Dutch conquest (1873–1904). The attribution of the Atjehnese translation of the Akidat al-awāmm was a matter noted by J. Kreemer in his study of Acehnese devotional literature.

Significance

Koeta-Radja is significant across all phases of the colonial history of Aceh. In Oost-Indisch Journael (Merac, 1947), it is the capital and the place of the Meusigit Raja, the centre of the colonial state’s religious politics. In Oom Ambon van het K.N.I.L. (Dames, 1954), it is the principal garrison of the K.N.I.L., the place at which Dominee Thenu was placed, and the site of his funeral — the book’s moral closure of the Aceh War: the men of courage carrying the man of faith, in the capital of the country they had fought forty-five years to subdue.

In the Nederlandsch Indië Platen Atlas (1926), Kota Radja’s mention in the transport chapter underscores the connection between the pacification of Atjeh under Governor Van Heutsz and the subsequent infrastructure development in the Buitengewesten. The road from Kota Radja to Padang represented one of the most significant engineering achievements in the Outer Territories and served as tangible proof that the policy of active administration (actieve politiek) had replaced the earlier policy of abstention (onthoudingspolitiek).

Account from the Notulen der bestuursvergaderingen (1914) — Koeta-Radja

Koeta-Radja (modern Banda Aceh) was the hoofdplaats (chief town) of the Gouvernement Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden and the seat of the Civiel en Militair Gouverneur. In the context of the Bestuursreorganisatie Sumatra (1913-1914), Koeta-Radja served as the venue for the final two bestuursvergaderingen on 19 January 1914 (evening) and 20 January 1914 (morning), convened by Regeeringscommissaris S. de Graaff. The meetings were attended by the full administrative and military leadership of the Gouvernement, including Gouverneur H. N. N. A. Swart and all Assistent-Residenten, Controleurs, and Civiel Gezaghebbers of the Atjeh afdeelingen and onderafdeelingen.

Historical Significance

Koeta-Radja occupied a singular position in the colonial administrative architecture of the Netherlands East Indies as the capital of one of only two Gouvernementen in the archipelago, the other being Celebes. Established as the seat of Dutch authority in Atjeh following the military campaigns of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the city symbolized the hard-won Dutch presence in a territory that had resisted colonial domination for decades. The very name Koeta-Radja—meaning “Royal City” in Acehnese—carried echoes of the pre-colonial Acehnese sultanate that had once made this city its capital, and the Dutch choice to retain the name underscored the symbolic importance of occupying the former seat of Acehnese sovereignty. By 1914, Koeta-Radja had developed into a substantial colonial administrative center, equipped with the apparatus of a Gouvernement capital: government offices, military installations, and the infrastructure necessary to support both the civilian and military branches of the colonial state that coexisted in this uniquely governed territory.

The hosting of the final two bestuursvergaderingen of the Bestuursreorganisatie Sumatra (1913-1914) at Koeta-Radja was itself of considerable symbolic and practical significance. After meetings in Palembang, Padang, and Medan, the decision to hold the concluding sessions in the Atjeh capital ensured that the Gouverneur and his staff—those most directly affected by the proposed abolition of the Gouvernement—had the fullest opportunity to present their views. The evening session of 19 January 1914 and the morning session of 20 January 1914 allowed for extended discussion of the specific administrative arrangements proposed for Atjeh, with H. N. N. A. Swart making detailed contributions regarding the indigenous administrative hierarchy and the feasibility of zelfbestuur in the territory.

Administrative Role in the Gouvernement

As the hoofdplaats of the Gouvernement Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden, Koeta-Radja served as the central node from which both civilian and military authority radiated across the territory. The Civiel en Militair Gouverneur—a unique title reflecting the dual nature of Atjeh’s administration—was headquartered in the city, combining in a single office the civil administrative functions normally exercised by a Governor with military command responsibilities that reflected the territory’s still-partial pacification. This institutional arrangement made Koeta-Radja unlike any other colonial capital in Sumatra, where civil and military authority were more strictly separated. The Gouverneur’s staff at Koeta-Radja included officers responsible for coordinating with the Assistent-Residenten who headed the various afdeelingen (Groot-Atjeh, Westkust van Atjeh, Oostkust van Atjeh, Noordkust van Atjeh), as well as the Controleurs and Civiel Gezaghebbers who administered the onderafdeelingen.

The port area of Koeta-Radja, known as Oeléë-Lhenë, was administered as a separate onderafdeeling by Controleur F. W. A. L. de Nijs, reflecting the administrative distinction between the inland capital and its maritime gateway. Oeléë-Lhenë was of considerable commercial and strategic importance, serving as the primary point of entry and exit for goods and personnel moving between Atjeh and the outside world. The separate administrative treatment of the port area also illustrated the granular level of colonial administrative subdivision in Atjeh, where even areas in the immediate vicinity of the capital warranted their own onderafdeeling and dedicated colonial official.

The 1913–1914 Reorganization and Koeta-Radja’s Future

In the proposed administrative reorganization discussed during the Bestuursreorganisatie Sumatra (1913-1914), Koeta-Radja was to lose its status as a Gouvernement capital—a change of profound significance for the city and its inhabitants. Under the new scheme, the Gouvernement Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden would be abolished, and its territories would be incorporated into the new Noord-Sumatra (proposed gewest) with its capital at Medan. Koeta-Radja itself would become the seat of a Resident rather than a Gouverneur, representing a substantial downgrade in the city’s administrative rank and, consequently, in the resources and prestige associated with its governmental functions. The minutes of the Koeta-Radja meetings noted that representatiekosten (representation expenses) for the Resident at Koeta-Radja would be necessary, reflecting the continued importance of the city as an administrative center even after the downgrade from Gouvernement to afdeeling level. This provision acknowledged that the Resident at Koeta-Radja would still need to maintain a degree of ceremonial and representational activity appropriate to the former capital of a Gouvernement, particularly in dealings with the indigenous elite whose cooperation remained essential to Dutch administration.

The transition from Gouvernement capital to Residentie also raised questions about the disposition of the military apparatus that had been headquartered in Koeta-Radja. Under the Gouvernement system, the Civiel en Militair Gouverneur exercised direct military command; under the proposed new arrangement, this military function would need to be reorganized, potentially through the creation of a separate military command structure or the subordination of Atjeh’s military forces to a broader Sumatra-wide command. The details of this transition were among the many issues that the bestuursvergaderingen sought to address, with the recognition that Koeta-Radja’s long association with military government could not be simply dissolved by administrative decree.

Account from The Geology of Indonesia (1949) — Kota Radja

Kota Radja as the colonial capital of Atjeh

Kota Radja’s status as the colonial capital of Atjeh dates from the 1873 Dutch expedition against the sultanate. After the capture of the Atjehnese capital (the Dalam, the sultan’s palace) in 1874, the Dutch colonial administration established Kota Radja as the seat of the Gouverneur van Atjeh en Onderhorigheden and as the garrison town of the colonial army in the residency. From 1874 onward, all colonial administrative, military and scientific activity in Atjeh — including the geological surveys of the Netherlands Indies Geological Survey — was coordinated from Kota Radja, and the town accordingly became the natural base-of-operations for the geological field-work that produced the printed mineralogical record of the residency.

Kota Radja as a geological reference-point

In the colonial geological literature on Atjeh, Kota Radja functions as the geographical reference-point for the eastern half of the residency, in the same way that Meulaboh functions for the western half. The iron-ore localities closest to Kota Radja are:

  • Kr. Geuenteuet (No. 1 in Van Bemmelen’s Fig. 41): 32 km South of Kota Radja, in the Al. Besu or A. Pantom Raba (a tributary of the Kr. Geuenteuet), with the 1920 reserve of 2,600,000 tons of 58–64 % Fe ore.
  • Gle Mon Ampeuet (No. 2): 37 km South of Kota Radja, with “numerous fragments of iron ore, with a core of pyrite, on the slopes”, and limestone and amphibole-andesite in the vicinity, indicating contact-metamorphic origin.

Both localities were recorded by the 1922 survey of Jansen, Lindberg and Wolvekamp, and both are within a day’s journey of the colonial capital — a proximity that reflects the concentration of early colonial geological attention on the surroundings of Kota Radja, where access was easiest and security most reliable.

Significance

Kota Radja is significant for the encyclopedia of Acheh history because it was the colonial capital of Atjeh and the geographical reference-point for the colonial geological literature on the eastern half of the residency. The iron-ore localities closest to the colonial capital — Kr. Geuenteuet and Gle Mon Ampeuet — are also the Atjeh iron-ore occurrences with the largest documented colonial reserve estimate (the 2,600,000 tons of 58–64 % Fe at Kr. Geuenteuet), and they accordingly occupy a disproportionately important place in the printed record of Atjeh’s mineral geography.

Account from Schets eener parlementaire geschiedenis (1955)

The following account is drawn from the parliamentary history of the Dutch Second Chamber as narrated by Vermeulen in the colonial section of the 1955 fourth revised edition of Rengers’s *Schets*.

Koeta Radja — also Kutaradja, Kuta Raja, modern Banda Aceh — was the principal Dutch military and administrative headquarters in Atjeh throughout the Atjeh-oorlog ([[1873-1904)|Atjeh-oorlog]] of 1873-1904 and the centre of the Concentratie-stelsel ([[1884-1896)|concentratie-stelsel]] of 1884-1896. The town, on the northern coast of Groot-Atjeh, was the seat of the sultanate of Acheh and, after the Dutch conquest, the seat of the governor and military commander of Atjeh en Onderhorigheden.

The concentratie-stelling

From 1884 to 1896 the Dutch forces in Atjeh fell back upon a concentratie-stelling — concentrated position — centred on Koeta Radja. The position was, in the contemporary Dutch comparison, a “Noordoostpolder”-sized area: a small reclaimed-polder perimeter around the town, surrounded by the unconquered interior of Groot-Atjeh. Idenburg later defended the measure retrospectively: “In Atjeh is geduld geoefend in de tijd van de concentratie” — patience was exercised in Atjeh in the time of the concentration — but the result, he conceded, was that “het verzet zich des te sterker heeft kunnen organiseren” — the resistance had been able to organise itself all the stronger.

The post-1896 recovery

After Toekoe Oemar’s defection ([[1896)|the defection of Toekoe Oemar]] in 1896 the concentratie-stelling was “niet meer geheel zeker” — no longer wholly secure. The post-1896 campaigns of Van Heutsz — the Van der Heyden-Van Heutsz system of pursuit into the remotest hiding-places — recovered Groot-Atjeh outside the perimeter, but the resistance chiefs withdrew to Pedir, and thence, in 1904, to the Gajoe- and Alaslanden. Koeta Radja remained, throughout, the headquarters from which these subsequent campaigns were directed.

The Van Heutsz inspection tour

The inspection tour that governor-general Van Heutsz undertook in December 1907 — at the request of minister Fock — was a tour of the pacificatie administration centred on Koeta Radja. The June 1908 report that resulted installed the new course of the pacificatie: administration through the hoofden (chiefs), bound to Dutch authority by “tactvolle omgang” — tactful intercourse.

Significance

Koeta Radja is the geographical pivot of the Atjehnese war. The concentratie-stelling of 1884-1896 is the strategic fact that defines the middle period of the war; the post-1896 recovery is the strategic fact that defines its conclusion. Both are anchored on Koeta Radja.

Account from DLP-84-Atjeh — distances, demography and the colonial garrison

The DLP-84-Atjeh pamphlet records the colonial-educational fact that the distance from Koeta Radja to Medan — the capital of Sumatra’s East Coast (Dutch: Sumatra’s Oostkust, abbreviated S.O.K.) — was 608 kilometres, a distance the pamphlet illustrates by comparison with the distance from Amsterdam to Berlin. The figure underscores the vast geographic spread of the residency of Acheh relative to the neighbouring economic hub of the S.O.K.

The population statistics of Acheh were calculated in part using the geographic footprint of Koeta Radja and the wider residency. While the gross population density of Acheh was artificially low — owing to the inclusion of uninhabited primeval forest (oerwoud (primeval forest)) in land-area calculations — the actual density per cultivated square kilometre was 88 inhabitants, a figure the pamphlet compares to the average population density of the Dutch province of Drente. Within this demographic landscape, approximately 3,200 Europeans resided in Acheh, meaning there was only one European for every 17 square kilometres — a measure of the limited colonial settlement footprint outside the major administrative centres like Koeta Radja.

A defensive perimeter of forten (forts) was constructed around Koeta Radja, manned largely by Christian soldiers. The fort of Peunajong served as a base for the pastoral work of Ds. Thenu. The Kerkhof Peutjoet near Koeta Radja contains the graves of Dutch and indigenous soldiers who fell during the Aceh War.

As the administrative capital, Koeta Radja anchored the colonial infrastructure of the residency. Despite Acheh possessing only 1/65th of the total population of the Dutch East Indies, the colonial state maintained a disproportionate military presence: 1/9th of the entire Royal Dutch East Indies Army (Koninklijk Nederlands Indisch Leger) was garrisoned in Acheh even during the peacetime consolidation period of the 1930s.

The Dutch East Indies Government also constructed a substantial mosque at Koetaradja — larger than the modest village missigit (mosque) structures found elsewhere in Acheh — built in a more robust colonial architectural style than the simple, roof-less village mosques.

Account from ATJEH ‘96 (Kruisheer, 1913) — the 1896 Dutch capital and military base

As described in Kruisheer’s ATJEH ‘96, Koeta Radja — written in Dutch as also Kota Radja, Kuta Raja, Koeta-Radja, Kutaraja and meaning “Fortress of the King” — was the Dutch capital and principal military base in Atjeh throughout the Atjeh-oorlog, the seat of the Civiel en Militair Gouverneur and after April 1896 of the Regeeringscommissaris. Koeta Radja contained the Kraton (the inner fortress stormed in 1873), the kampongs of Nesoch, Kampong Baroe, Kampong Gedah, Pendetie, Koeta Alam, and the Soerabaijawijk, and the headquarters of the Geconcenteerde Linie (Concentrated Line) and the buitenlinie (outer line). Koeta Radja was the destination of troops arriving by special trains on the military railway, the site of the farewell parade of Lt.-Gen. Vetter on 27 June 1896, and the point of departure for Vetter’s return to Batavia on 28 June 1896.

Description and Location (ATJEH ‘96 account)

Koeta Radja lay at the head of the Kroeng-Raba bay on the northern coast of Atjeh, with the port of Oleh-leh on its seaward side. The town contained the Kraton (the great Achehnese royal fortress stormed by the Dutch in 1873), within which a substantial garrison was maintained — three complete veldbataljons (field battalions), a bergartillerie (mountain artillery) battery, and three cavalry pelotons ready to march out. Around the Kraton lay the kampong-quarters of Nesoch, Kampong Baroe (also Baroc), Kampong Gedah, Pendetie (Pendeti, where 600 men were quartered under the kazerne (barracks)), Koeta Alam (the Dutch campement near Berawai), and the Soerabaijawijk. The exercise terrain of Petjoen lay nearby, and it was there that the farewell parade of 27 June 1896 was held. The military railway Spoorbaan ran from Koeta Radja through Lampeneroet to the front, and the administration was centred in the town.

Historical Background (ATJEH ‘96 account)

Koeta Radja had been the capital of the sultanate of Atjeh and the seat of the Sultan of Atjeh until the 1873 Dutch expedition stormed and destroyed the Kraton. From 1873 onward Koeta Radja became the principal Dutch garrison town in Atjeh, and the Geconcenteerde Linie (Concentrated Line) of posts was built outward from it. After 1890 the buitenlinie of buitenposten extended the perimeter deeper into the three sagi of Groot-Atjeh. Koeta Radja was the seat of the Civiel en Militair Gouverneur — at the opening of 1896, Gen.-Maj. Deykerhoff — and after his dismissal on 7 April 1896 of the Regeeringscommissaris Lt.-Gen. Vetter and the acting military commander Kolonel Stemfoort.

Role in the 1896 Operations (ATJEH ‘96 account)

Koeta Radja was the administrative and logistical centre of the entire 1896 Dutch counter-offensive. After the defection of 29 March 1896 extensive defensive measures were taken at Koeta Radja: barbed wire was placed around Nesoch, gun stands and covered infantry positions were established, and palissadeering was erected. The marineschepen (marine ships) Sumbawa and Tromp on the west side and Flores on the east side defended Oleh-leh and the seaward approaches. The 3.7 cm snelvuurkanon (quick-firing gun) was placed on the landtong (spit) in the south-west bastion, and 2 officers and 52 men of the landingsdivisie (landing division) reinforced the garrison. On 30 March 1896 a column under Van der Noordaa marched from Koeta Radja to relieve the blokhuizen (blockhouses) of Aloer Oe and Toei Selimbing at Senelop. On 7 April 1896 Vetter arrived at Koeta Radja aboard the steamer or Bantam with the 9th Battalion Infantry, Kolonel Stemfoort, and Majoor Breijer. On 27 June 1896 the farewell parade was held on the exercitieterrein (exercise terrain) near Petjoen, with brigades maréchaussée and other units drawn up; on 28 June 1896 Vetter departed Koeta Radja for Batavia and the civil and military government was restored. Troops returning from the front were brought by train from Lam-Djamoe to the Kraton.

Significance (ATJEH ‘96 account)

Koeta Radja was the political, military, and logistical centre of the Dutch enterprise in Atjeh throughout the Atjeh-oorlog. Its loss would have undone the entire Dutch position, and the defensive measures taken after the defection of 29 March 1896 reflect the gravity with which the Dutch viewed Umar’s possible attack on the capital. The restoration of the civil and military government on 28 June 1896 marked the formal end of the Vetter Regeeringscommissaris regime and the symbolic stabilisation of the Dutch position after the crisis of the first semester of 1896.

The Governor’s seat

It was at Koeta Radja that Swart sat in his office — “the small, thick-set figure who now had to leave the leading in the field to others, who held only the threads in his hands, who chose the men and issued the commissions, and who with every ring of the telephone might expect a report that struck a piece out of his construction, that might bring the news of the death of one of his own men, but that might also carry the work a few paces further along the long road to the distant goal.”

The Governor’s residence is illustrated in du Croo’s book, as are the 1913 meeting of the Governor with his civil and military administrative officials and the openbaar gehoor (public audience) of 31 August 1912.

Institutions and events

At Koeta Radja stood the Gewestelijk Bureau, to which officers could be attached for form’s sake while operating freely elsewhere, as Scheurleer was in 1911 while collecting information about Pang Bintang. It was to Koeta Radja that H. J. Schmidt came in June 1908 to plead against his posting to Padang Tidji, and there that Swart consulted the Register van Bendehoofden.

In 1910 a Normaalcursus for the training of village schoolteachers was founded at Koeta Radja, which brought the necessary improvement in the quality of volksonderwijs. In 1915 Swart laid the first stone of the building of the Javasche Bank. In 1911 the jaarmarkttentoonstelling (annual fair exhibition) at Koeta Radja was visited under Muurling’s leadership by the Kedjoerön Petiambang and fourteen prominent chiefs of the Gajò Loeös, during which Rödjö Tjoet Pasér with his panglimas and the blah-heads of Pasér and Reröbö solemnly begged the Governor’s forgiveness. In December 1916 a meeting of progressive young oelèëbalangs and Acehnese officials was held at Koeta Radja in Swart’s presence, out of which the Sarekat Atjeh arose.

The town also housed the Atjehclub, in whose reading room hung the portraits of all the Atjeh generals, and the Oranjehotel, whose manager Hense, a former marechaussée sub-officer, was murdered on 12 February 1919. In the former military encampment at Peuniti a native trade school was established.

Peutjoet and the Tjakra Donja

At Koeta Radja lay the heroes’ cemetery Peutjoet, where W. B. J. A. Scheepens was buried in October 1913 and where Swart’s funeral oration had to be broken off. “The marble shields on the gate of Peutjoet are history and do not lie,” wrote I. Feenstra in 1918. General-major Köhler, the first Dutch general to fall in Atjeh, was killed in 1873 at Koeta Radja by the missigit, “a few hundred metres from his grave.”

At Koeta Radja also hung the historic bell Tjakra Donja, “according to tradition derived from the Tjakra Donja, the legendary warship of the Acehnese Sultan Meukoeta Alam.”

The tramway connection

Koeta Radja was the terminus of the Atjehtram; the correspondent of the Nieuwe Courant noted in 1914 that “in a couple of months Kota Radja will be in direct rail connection with the Deli plantation district.”

Departure of Swart

On 31 August 1898 van Heutsz held a reception at Koeta Radja after his barefoot return from Tangsé. Twenty years later, on the morning of 22 September 1918, Swart drove by car from Koeta Radja to Oelèë Lheuë for his departure, accompanied by the acting Governor and the Provincial Military Commander.

Account in Hooijer’s De verlaten posten in Groot-Atjeh (1897)

Kota Radja was the Dutch administrative and garrison centre of Groot-Atjeh, within the geconcentreerde linie, and the point of reference for the outpost garrisons described in De verlaten posten in Groot-Atjeh.

Relations with the outposts

Hooijer recorded that in the quiet years ladies and gentlemen came out from Kota Radja by small carriage to visit Tjot Goeë, raised above the surrounding rice-fields, from whose bastion seat one had a pleasant view over a series of posts in the concentrated line. Soldiers at Lam Koenjit longed for news from Kota Radja, waarnaar zij verlangden om de drukte en beweging, de groote kantine en wat niet al meer — for its bustle and movement, its great canteen and much else besides. At Toengkoeb, where pay accumulated without occasion to spend it, the accumulated sum was paid out at Kota Radja on return from detacheering. Toekoe Tjoet travelled back and forth to Kota Radja rather than concern himself with the Dutch post in his own neighbourhood.

Isolation of the posts in 1896

When Tjot Rang was invested after the defection of Teukoe Oemar, Hooijer recorded that vandaar eenig bericht naar Kota Radja te verzenden bleek onmogelijk — to send any message thence to Kota Radja proved impossible; the garrison could only look out from one day to the next for relief.

Account from Vijftig jaren economische staatkunde in Atjeh (1923)

Koeta Radja was the capital of Atjeh and the seat of the Government of Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden — the fortified kernel of the Dutch concentrated line of 1884–1896, the centre of the Atjeh Tram, and the town whose building, commercial and institutional growth through 1923 author Joh. Langhout traces from a war bivouac to a provincial capital with banks, newspapers, a museum and an hotel “met zijn machtig-indrukwekkende omgeving” (“with its mightily impressive surroundings”, photo caption).

Early Dutch works

After the debarkation at Oelèë Lheue in April 1873, Koeta Radja was linked to the coast by the works of the commission of 26 June 1874: a road of five kilometres, a railway and a telegraphic connection (in service 20 March 1875). The first artesian well of Atjeh, begun in September 1874, yielded on 22 June 1875 some 60 litres of excellent drinking water per minute — a first necessity against the cholera which had raged frightfully. In July 1875 Oelèë Lheue and the adjacent Kampong Djawa already counted 181 traders, mostly Chinese. The petty trade of the town grew with the petty industries of Europeans and Foreign Orientals: bread- and rusk-bakeries and slaughterhouses of the so-called Atjeh-leverancier, a factory for artificial mineral water and a small printing office, beside Chinese brick- and tile-kilns, lime-kilns, smithies, arak distilleries, gold- and silversmiths, tinsmiths, tailors, shoemakers, “tot zelfs twee Chineesche fotografen” (“down to even two Chinese photographers”).

Public buildings and the Missigit

In October 1879 Governor Karel van der Heijden laid the first stone of the town’s new Missigit (mosque), built at his initiative; it was opened with great ceremony on 27 December 1882, and at the beginning of that year several clergy were attached to it at government cost. The earthquake of 1883 shook Koeta Radja to a wide distance in the “rapjaar”. To protect the town against inundations the Government built a quay (under Governor Van Teijn). The photographs in Langhout’s book show the Koeta Goenoengan and the gate Pintō Khab (Pintu Khop) of Koeta Radja, “neusoh” (northeast side).

Commercial growth after 1893

The submission of Teukoe Oemar (30 September 1893) ushered in prosperity: new dwellings and Chinese toko’s gradually arose, European and foreign traders renewed and improved their shops and magazines, and the government received numerous applications for building-sites. Under Governor J. C. van der Wyck (1904–1905) stone houses for the assistant-residents of Groot-Atjeh and of the Dependencies were completed, a new tasteful hotel came ready, and with government support an abattoir was opened and a pepper-washing establishment erected, administered by the Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappij. The value of the import of piece-goods at Oelèë Lheue rose from f 162,175 in 1898 to f 4,889,522 in 1904.

Institutional centre

Under Governor H. N. A. Swart the town acquired: a Hollandsch-Indlandsche school (1915), a Hollandsch-Chineesche school (1918), an Ambonese school (1911, nearly 400 pupils by 1918), a neutral fröbel-school (1915) and a native trade school (1916); the Groot-Atjehsche Afdeelingsbank (September 1908) and the annual agricultural exhibitions; the Atjeh Museum (opened 1915 in the rebuilt Semarang exhibition pavilion); offices of Medan houses; and the agency of the Javasche Bank (opened 2 December 1918, first stone laid by Swart), joined by the premises of the Atjeh press on the Peunajoengsingel (1903) and the Sociëteitsweg (1914), the NHM office (1904–1905, photo in the book), the Atjehsche Handelmaatschappij head office, and the Economische Vereeniging te Koeta Radja (1919). Governor A. G. H. van Sluys held his officials’ conferences here (September 1921 with self-governing rulers attending), and from 1922 his new regulation for the local funds gave the town a kind of municipality in embryo. By 1923 Koeta Radja could be reached by car from Medan and by train from the East Coast of Sumatra — a through connection of 510 kilometres (see Atjeh Tram).

Maréchaussée staff station and jubilee site

The 1930 jubilee number of Het Nieuws van den Dag voor Nederlandsch-Indië records that in 1898 the Staff of the Korps Maréchaussée was quartered at Koeta Radja, its divisions lying at Selimoen, Indrapoeri, Tjot Mantjang and Glé Broet, Tjot Goet, and Lam Baroe and Lho’-Nga. When the corps was enlarged by Gouvernementsbesluit of 3 March 1899 to 20 officers and 1,212 men, its military administration was placed under a field officer, “en daarvoor werd aldra aangewezen de plaatselijk Commandant te Koeta-Radja” — for which the local commandant at Koeta Radja was soon designated.

Koeta Radja was also the site of the corps’s fortieth-anniversary celebration on 2 April 1930: the presentation of the colour was to take place before the Kerkhof te Peutjoet near the town, and a deputation travelled there from Java on board the Tasman.

Account from Atjeh als land voor handel en bedrijf (1925)

Koeta Radja was hoofdplaats of gewest Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden, planned city by Netherlands administration not grown by trade, with spacious quarters, clean orderly but silent dead silent per Broersma.

Description according to Broersma

Koeta Radja as center kraton whose walls disappeared kraton formerly dwelling governor offices magazines workshops dwellings safely sheltered kraton old sultans. Cemetery resting place bodies many who left life unrest Atjeh land preserves many memories homage gratitude remaining when stone signs once given. That replaced dalam. European quarters Koeta Radja residential quarter Malays Javanese Klings Chinese large number. Close hotel built with government support now property company where government participates amount still larger than earlier support had during Van Heutsz Vredespark laid but later during Van Daalen Oorlogspark added. Excellent societeit neat spacious. On place where earlier large meuseugit stood destroyed during war enterprise government at cost built large mosque Building comes out because high big but lacks finesse consecration Long years Atjeh population withheld interest later may be prayer house.

In esplanade Atjeh house arranged as Atjeh museum Visit worth both careful ordering instructive visits collection itself. Forging weaving art crafts use crafts example products land represented … museum now well-provided perhaps soon must miss good part richness when owner many objects collection takes back. Pity Koeta Radja privilege good drinking water Also here exists gemeentefonds two slaughterhouses bioscoop pasar maintains street lighting manages bathing place Oelèë Lheuë.

From sense spacious layout nearby harbour little town profited That space earlier rather required than now Earlier more ships many more officers At Oelèë Lheuë everything neat well situated Properly arranged swimming place attraction townspeople because dance floor beside recreation land water even land not need sit dry Meanwhile Oelèë Lheuë significance declined Where earlier before reduction troops troop movements actually only port for Atjeh directed after administrative settlement other coastal places shipping also there Nowadays only one government steamer Oelèë Lheuë earlier more. Main export figures 1918 1921 pepper 316,660 KG 371,270 KG pinang 529,050 244,744 coprah 77,376. Oelèë Lheuë (vulgo Oleleh) monthly roads about 15 ships KPM unloading in prauws Chinese entrepreneur or Atjeh Transport-Mij part of Sabang-Mij Company also steamer coming to trade steiger to Oleleh goods passengers.

One beautiful tours undertaking Atjeh through 25 and 26 Moekims to Lho Nga at west coast Apart fierce winds usually Sumatraanschen wind called during few months May-July occasionally arise and showers consequence that area pleasant healthy climate Were not lengthy war state probably entrepreneurs big agriculture here sought grounds That may point Deli-Atjeh Tabak-Mij over twenty years ago in 26 moekims as near Indrapoeri trials tobacco little luck though good quality could obtain. Reason was and is well good tobacco obtained but no Deli-Langkat. Later years north Groot-Atjeh some European enterprises and plantations coco palm Mata lë and Ketapan Doea.

From Koeta Radja excellent road through Lam Pisang (Lam abbreviation Dalam place) small kampong now bigger nobler earlier further through region … Breaks low mountain it’s gorge Bradeuën Then in 4 moekims belonging subdivision Lho Nga and rides magnificent tjemara forest right at sea stands on bumpy soil lovely sandy beach before. On Java Sumatra at some points southern western coast places surprising impression western vastness mildness they immediately visitor establish accustomed landscape plain under untempered broiling sun Such surprising spot found at Lho Nga at sea about 15 KM Koeta-Radja place to rest dune-like height with fallen tjemara-green covered under peaceful rustle tree tops and roaring foam sea wave after wave on beach carries. Selected pause offers road further south to Seudoe where over great length close along sea and glorious view over big moving mass rolling onto karang coast and there with cheerful noise between lost. Always grand panorama north coast Sumatra awesome when storm waters also road much suffering telephone poles must set reinforced concrete Where road somewhat coastal fringe recedes kampongs aside Among some orchards various species unusual phenomenon Indies Gardens with rambutan mangistan doekoe doerian mangga.

Education: many volksschooltjes where several girls go although additionally girls school fröbelschool 2 gouvernements inland schools 2 Hollandsch-inlandsche schools Hollandsch-Chinesche school Ambonese school craft school European elementary school and mulo-school Pupils all those institutions not only Koeta Radja itself 10k souls they flow from whole gewest.

Great importance Atjehsch internaat 1922 erected boarding for school-going Atjeh children under European supervision while maintaining simplicity try meet all demands Dormitories spacious feeding according medical advice neatly cared Lodging monthly 60 gulden but child can for less if parents amount cannot pay Noteworthy all housed children still from notable families Oeléëbalang tjoet would children may admitted but not yet It thus until today noble institution. Strengthening volkswelvaart made here like elsewhere gewest institution for separation sufferers contagious diseases Leprozen housed on island Poh Ama where under supervision government doctor by Ambonese nurse cared About 50 sufferers admitted Considered care institution again transfer to Leger des Heils Salvation Army managed earlier Each nursing available from Lands kas 10 gulden monthly thereby all expenses fought Been time before 1919 that sufferers housed like beasts Was time nice abattoir built where however not allowed slaughter as only must serve appearance orderly neat bestuur. Frequent insanity in Atjeh recent years attracted attention and wished know if in connection with attacks long known name Atjeh murders worry bestuur community Consequence research advisor government inland affairs and expert mental diseases necessity insane asylum Atjeh When he in gewest came administration could hand list about 1100 people considered insane Researcher impression truly number well larger Finding malaria lepra syphilis framboesia people plague already weakened child marriage mutual wars war against Dutch administration Evil opium added evil alcohol likewise Always quite spirits in Atjeh used mainly heads They learned know through Europeans and Klings fairly large number in Atjeh. Degeneration children many phenomena paralysis idiocy stupidity insanity epilepsy nerve weakness Researcher not neglected point mental decline partly account material decline Atjeh people lost much strength decadent Old women who male folk otherwise known now sometimes reproach men that they play football visit cinema but lack pride fathers Well explainable so administration Atjeh proposed central institution treatment insane build Lam Teumet in Seulimeum. For economy government not consent but recently agreed former military hospital Sabang will be arranged admission insane needing asylum nursing.

Atjeh Tram

First rail traffic naturally between Koeta Radja and port Oelèë Lheuë (Oleh Leh). Only until time concentration when Netherlands power 1884 limited to ring around Koeta Radja and ceintuurbaan 16 posts connected short before to tram reduced railway while three radial lines main establishment Koeta Radja with ceintuurbaan. See Atjeh Tram details.

Municipal and harbour

Koeta Radja bears many education institutions Atjehsch internaat boarding for school-going Atjeh children European supervision etc.

In the eye survey of Groot-Atjeh (1937)

Koetaradja was one of the two onderafdeelingen of the afdeeling Groot-Atjeh covered by the survey, and the seat of the Militair Hospitaal to which Dr. C. E. Gomperts referred all patients needing surgery or hospital treatment. Its estimated population for 1937 was 24,336 — 8,369 men, 8,882 women and 7,085 children.

Koetaradja was one of only four places in Groot-Atjeh not populated exclusively by Atjehnese, though the admixture with Malays, Padangers and others was “zeer gering.” The town’s eye out-patient clinic supplied the observations on wazig zien (blurred vision) that Gomperts could not make in the villages, the donkerkamertent letting through too much light for the fluorescein test; and the Huidarts at Koetaradja reported the forty-odd gonorrhoeal patients whose small number helped Gomperts discount gonorrhoea as a cause of blindness.

See Also

Source

The Achehnese, Vol. II, by Dr. C. Snouck Hurgronje, translated by A.W.S. O’Sullivan, indexed by R.J. Wilkinson. Leyden: E.J. Brill, 1906. The Achehnese, Vol. I, by Dr. C. Snouck Hurgronje, translated by A.W.S. O’Sullivan, indexed by R.J. Wilkinson. Leyden: E.J. Brill, 1906. Chapter I, §§ 2–5, pp. 23–58. Raffles’ Atjeh-overeenkomst van 1819, by P. H. van der Kemp, in Bijdragen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, 6e Volgr., Deel VII (1900), pp. 159–239. Universiteitsbibliotheek Vrije Universiteit, LS.08781. De Buitenbezittingen, Deel II, Aflevering 2: Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden, bewerkt door het Encyclopaedisch Bureau, Mededeelingen van het Bureau voor de Bestuurszaken der Buitenbezittingen (Weltevreden: Landsdrukkerij, 1917), pp. 21, 38, 46–47, 214–215. Atjèh and the War with Japan, by Dr. A. J. Piekaar, translated from the Dutch original Atjèh en de oorlog met Japan (1949) (‘s-Gravenhage/Bandung: N.V. Uitgeverij W. van Hoeve; English edition), Foreword, Chapter I §§ 3–5, Chapter II, Chapter III § 1, Chapter IV, Chapter V § 1, Chapter VII § 4. Verslagen der Marine‑Vereeniging III 1889‑1890, pp. 229‑233. 20260707_232246_DLP-55-De_geschiedenis_van_het_Nederlandsche_Korps_Mariniers_van_1665_1945_OCR.txt, pages 138‑141. De geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Korps Mariniers van 1665–1945, OCR transcription, page 484. 20260707_232246_DLP-55-De_geschiedenis_van_het_Nederlandsche_Korps_Mariniers_van_1665_1945_OCR.txt. ATJEH ‘96, door A. Kruisheer, Kapitein der Infanterie O.I.L., met 2 kaarten en 4 portretten (Weltevreden: N.V. Boekhandel Visser & Co, 1913). Instituut Kern, Leiden. OCR-filename: 20260715_163243_DLP-89-Atjeh_96_Met_2_kaarten_en4_DOORA_KRUISHEER_Kapiteinder_Infanterie_nemoretriever-ocr-v1_OCR.txt, pp. 26, 224, 318, 321, 325, 332, 339. De Kleine Oosterling — Iets uit de Geschiedenis van Nederlandsch-Indië. Leesboekje voor de Lagere Scholen, door J. Wijma, Tweede Druk (Kampen: Laurens van Hulst, 1901), Les 38 (“Een nieuwe stad”). De onderwerping van Atjeh, door J. B. van Heutsz, Majoor der Infanterie, gewezen Chef van den Staf in Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden. ‘s-Gravenhage: De Gebroeders van Cleef; Batavia: G. Kolff en Co., 1893, esp. pp. 8, 14, 16, 19, 22, 27, 32. OCR-filename: 20260718_105749_DLP-107-De_onderwerping_van_Atjeh_Nemotron-OCR-v2_OCR.txt. De geschiedenis van Nederland in onzen tijd, by J. A. de Bruyne, Directeur der Hoogere Burgerschool te Zierikzee. Deel IV. 1872-1883. Nieuwe uitgave. Schiedam: J. F. Dupont, 1912, Hoofdstuk I, pp. 26-37, 64-65, 113-115. Atjeh, door H.C. Zentgraff. Gedrukt bij Drukkerij “De Unie”, 1938, Batavia. OCR-filename: 20260709_002148_DLP-81-Atjeh_OCR.txt. “Dispereert Niet: Twintig Eeuwen Historie van de Nederlanden”, Deel XI, by A. Algra and H. Algra (Franeker: T. Wever, 1946), pp. 54-55, 59-60. De geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Korps Mariniers van 1665‑1945, OCR transcription, pp. 118‑119. Oom Ambon van het K.N.I.L., by G. W. T. Dames, Maj. Inf. K.N.I.L. b.d. (‘s-Gravenhage: Koninklijke Bibliotheek, 1954), prologue “Bij ons…” and chapter “Dominee Thenu.” Oost-Indisch Journael: Palaver om de tafel met het gat, by Merac, Toekan-Serie no. 2, ed. G. L. Tichelman (Haarlem: De Gulden Pers, 1947), the chapter on the Meusigit Raja and the chapter on den zieleherder. Als officier van gezondheid naar Nederlandsch-Indië, by Dr. Johan Wøller, trans. Greta Baars-Jelgersma (Utrecht: Erven J. Bijleveld), pp. 143-145. Nederlandsch Indië Platen Atlas met korte beschrijvingen, uitgegeven door Volkslectuur, Weltevreden, Java. Weltevreden: G. Kolff & Co., January 1926. Chapter IX (Verkeer / Transport), p. 160, and Plate 70 (Monuments at Weltevreden), p. 70. 20260707_232246_DLP-54-Een_16de_eeuwse_Maleise_vertaling_van_de_Burda_van_al_Bu_s_i_ri_OCR.txt, p. 21. Notulen der bestuursvergaderingen ter bespreking van de verdere voorbereiding eener hervorming van het bestuurswezen in Nederlandsch-Indië (Batavia: Landsdrukkerij, 1914), pp. 118–130. The Geology of Indonesia, by R. W. van Bemmelen, Vol. II: Economic Geology (The Hague: Government Printing Office; Martinus Nijhoff, 1949), pp. 207–208 (Kr. Geuenteuet and Gle Mon Ampeuet localities, with distance-and-bearing references to Kota Radja). Schets eener parlementaire geschiedenis van Nederland van 1849 tot 1901, by Mr W. J. van Welderen baron Rengers, 4th rev. ed., Vol. IV: Oost-Indië 1891-1918 by Dr W. H. Vermeulen (‘s-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1955), pp. 269-274. DLP-84-Atjeh.pdf (Part 5 of 5), p. 16. Centrale Boekerij Kon. Inst. v.d. Tropen, Amsterdam. DLP-84-Atjeh.pdf, p. 9. ATJEH ‘96, door A. Kruisheer, Kapitein der Infanterie O.I.L., met 2 kaarten en 4 portretten (Weltevreden: N.V. Boekhandel Visser & Co, 1913). Instituut Kern, Leiden. OCR-filename: 20260715_163243_DLP-89-Atjeh_96_Met_2_kaarten_en4_DOORA_KRUISHEER_Kapiteinder_Infanterie_nemoretriever-ocr-v1_OCR.txt, pp. 14, 27, 28, 47, 48, 56, 67, 68, 71, 72, 73, 74, 82, 83, 92, 99, 116, 122, 132, 134–135, 143, 149, 162, 171, 176, 185, 194, 203, 209, 213, 224, 234, 266, 296, 318, 321, 325, 332, 333. Generaal Swart, Pacificator van Atjeh (“General Swart, Pacifier of Atjeh”), by M. H. du Croo, Colonel K.N.I.L. (retired), with the collaboration of H. J. Schmidt, Titular Colonel K.N.I.L. (retired), with a foreword by His Excellency Lieutenant-General K.N.I.L. (retired) G. K. Dijkstra (Maastricht: N.V. Leiter-Nypels, 1943), Chapters III, X, XI, XII, XIII, XV, XVI, XVII, pp. 19, 94, 108, 121, 134–135, 143, 151, 153–155, and illustrations. De verlaten posten in Groot-Atjeh, door G. B. Hooijer, Gep. Luit.-Kolonel O. I. Leger, met 24 platen (Haarlem: De Erven F. Bohn; Batavia: G. Kolff & Co., 1897). Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, Centrale Boekerij, Amsterdam. OCR-filename: 20260719_140140_DLP-134-De_verlaten_posten_in_Groot_Atjeh_Nemotron-OCR-v2_OCR.txt, pp. 10, 18, 22, 26, 36. Acknowledgement of sources. This article is a single consolidated account combining the material previously held in this entry with the account given in De verlaten posten in Groot-Atjeh (1897) by G. B. Hooijer. Dutch terminology has been rendered in English, the original Dutch being retained only in direct quotations and in bibliographic citations. De Geconcentreerde Stelling in Groot-Atjeh, ‘s-Gravenhage: De Gebroeders Van Cleef, 1885, pp. 19–23. Vijftig jaren economische staatkunde in Atjeh, by Joh. Langhout (The Hague: N.V. Boekhandel v/h W. P. van Stockum & Zoon, 1923), pp. 31–33, 42, 47, 50–52, 61, 66–67, 70–71, 87, 111, 119, 124, illustration captions pp. 17, 44, 129, 177, 183, 191, 194.

Het Korps Maréchaussée in Atjeh: De Atjehsche Garde, 1890 - 2 April 1930 (“The Corps of Maréchaussée in Atjeh: The Atjehnese Guard”), Extra Jubileum-nummer of Het Nieuws van den Dag voor Nederlandsch-Indië issued for the fortieth anniversary of the corps (1930), pp. 1-16. Offprint DLP-143, Bibliotheek KITLV, accession 621 116 794. Atjeh als land voor handel en bedrijf, by Dr. R. Broersma, Gebrs. Cohen, Utrecht, 1925, pp. 85-101.

Oriënteerend oogheelkundig onderzoek bij de Atjehsche bevolking van Groot-Atjeh gedurende 1937 (“Orienting Ophthalmological Survey among the Atjehnese Population of Groot-Atjeh during 1937”), by Dr. C. E. Gomperts, offprint from the Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië, Afl. 19, Deel 80 (1940), pp. 1191-1238 (Batavia-Centrum: G. Kolff & Co.). Received by the editors 25 October 1939. Offprint DLP-157, Bibliotheek KITLV.

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