Peureula

Peureula (also Peureulah) is an oil-field locality on the north coast of Atjeh — in the Pidie region — recorded in Van Bemmelen’s *Geology of Indonesia* (1949) as the largest producing field of the Atjeh oil complex in the 1940–1941 period. The Peureula field was operated by the N.L.A.M. (Nederlandsche Lloyd Aardolie Maatschappij, the Netherlands Lloyd Petroleum Company), and its production of 48,219 tons of 1000 kg in 1940 and 36,640 tons in 1941 accounted for the great majority of the Atjeh-complex output in both years.

Production figures

For the full North-Sumatran production table see the entry on the East Atjeh oil block. The Peureula field’s production of 48,219 tons in 1940 made it the second-largest producing oil field in the Atjeh residency after the Tamiang block (709,625 tons), and considerably larger than the B.P.M.-operated Aru Bay (55,924 tons) and East Atjeh block (no production in 1940). The decline to 36,640 tons in 1941 — a fall of 11,579 tons, or 24.0 % — is consistent with the general contraction of East Indian oil production in 1941 as the colonial economy braced for the Pacific War.

The operator of the Peureula field, the N.L.A.M., is one of the smaller East Indian oil companies recorded in Van Bemmelen’s text. The fact that the N.L.A.M. — rather than the dominant B.P.M. — operated the Peureula field indicates that the Atjeh north coast was one of the regions of the East Indies where the smaller oil companies were able to obtain and develop concessions, in contrast to the B.P.M.-dominated South-Sumatran and East-Borneo provinces.

Geological context

Van Bemmelen’s general classification of the Atjeh petroleum geology places the Peureula field among the “steep folds (Atjeh, Borneo)” that “were repeatedly investigated by drilling but the results have not been encouraging”. The implication is that the Peureula oil is hosted in steeply-folded neogene sediments of the Atjeh north coast, in a structural setting less favourable for oil accumulation than the gently-domed anticlines of the South-Sumatran fields. The modest size of the Peureula production, and its decline between 1940 and 1941, are consistent with this assessment.

The name “Peureula”

The name “Peureula” — also Peureulah — is the standard Acehnese form of the place-name rendered in colonial Dutch cartography as Peureulah or Peureula, and in modern Indonesian as Peureulak. The place is historically significant in its own right as the site of the early modern sultanate of Samudra Pasai (Peureulak was, in the early Muslim period, a separate coastal kingdom that subsequently merged into the wider Pasai polity). The oil-field name “Peureula” accordingly carries a double resonance: it is both the designation of a colonial-era oil field and the name of a historical Acehnese kingdom.

Significance

Peureula is significant for the encyclopedia of Acheh history because it was the largest producing oil field of the Atjeh oil complex in the 1940–1941 period, and accordingly the principal site of the colonial-era oil industry on the Atjeh north coast proper (as distinct from the southern-edge Tamiang block). The Peureula field is also the clearest colonial instance of the operation of the N.L.A.M. on Atjeh territory, and it accordingly illustrates the role of the smaller East Indian oil companies in the development of the Atjeh oil economy.

Account from Verkenningen in Atjeh (1923)

Peureula — pronounced Perlak, and so written in the older literature — is the chief place of the landschap of the same name in the onderafdeeling Langsa of the afdeeling Oostkust van Atjeh, and the site of one of the oldest historical kingdoms of northern Sumatra. The place was visited by Marco Polo in the last part of the thirteenth century — he called it Ferlac — and was an old Atjehnese settlement of long standing when the sultans of Atjeh brought it under their overlordship in the sixteenth century.

The Name and Its Pronunciation

The official spelling and writing is Peureula; the spelling was thus restored by direction of Dr. Snouck Hurgronje. But the pronunciation is wholly different from what one would expect. The eu in Atjehnese names is almost toneless, sounding about like the e in the Malay word erroee, so that one hears Peureula as Perlak. When one reads the place-names at the stations without knowing this, and pronounces them accordingly, one would not be understood. Thus Bireuën is pronounced Birun, Seulimeum as Slimum, Keureutò as Kertó, Meureudoe as Merdoe.

The Historical Kingdom

Marco Polo visited Perlak in the last part of the thirteenth century and called it Ferlac. He reported that Mohammedan merchants were the bosses there, and that there was an inland population that ate men. He said that rice was eaten, and the arenga-palm and the coco-palm were used. The Chinese traveller Fei Hsin, two centuries later, saw that pepper grew there, and that the people prepared toewak from the nipah-palm, and that two harvests of dry fields were obtained yearly. Sultans rode high seated on an elephant, and went to war against unbelievers.

There is now still a kampong Samoedra, where however no old archive is present. Here and there lie the graves of old sultans and princes, of which those at Blang Mé are the best known. Some of them are monumental graves for which marble has been used. A marble tombstone, standing at the head of the grave, bears the mention of names and facts in old script of mysterious characters. Remote in the water-land, this burial-place yet offers a royal rest under the high trees and remains a place full of dedication for the pious of the land. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries Samoedra and Pasé came under Atjeh, and the princes became subject to the sultan. When Atjeh in the course of time lost its power, an independence of princes and chiefs developed in all the regions outside Groot-Atjeh — a process that in some landschappen went so far that there came to be too many chiefs and petty chiefs.

The Landschap

The landschap of Peureula (Perlak) is, in contrast to the neighbouring landschappen — such as Soengei Raja, Pedawa Raje, Simpang Olim — an old Atjehnese settlement, and the pepper-cultivation is of old date there. One can imagine this, considering first that pepper has for centuries been a sought-after spice, and secondly that of old the princes of the land in the Indies were the great traders, receiving from the small people, taking in tribute and selling abroad. The Atjehnese chiefs were mostly men of business and have always been so. If they liked fine things, then the merchant from outside — the Chinese of Penang or Singapore — knew what he had to offer. If he brought chiefs into debt, they had only to have the products of the land ready — pepper especially — to deliver at a favourable price. Pepper was the old stapel of the country.

The landschap counts, according to the government’s statement, 12.000 souls, of whom in the place Peureula about 800. What one sees there, in the keude (market-street), are the Chinese and their toko’s; an Inlandse second-class school; a girls’ school; a small clinic with ten beds, visited twice a week by the doctor of Langsa; the toll-office of the oeléebalang, the landshoofd. Outside, along the road, stand poor huts, in which a population lives that does not belong in the land. The great kampongs with better houses are not found along the road, but along the rivers.

Pepper-Cultivation

The agriculture of the settled Atjehnese population is the cultivation of padi on the blang — the great open rice-field. On Java one would call it tegal, that is, a rain-fed rice-field. There are in all Atjeh very many tegals, but one gladly wishes to know of true sawahs. In Peureula small irrigation-works have recently been undertaken, of which one serves to improve a wadoek laid out in 1906 — that is, then was begun with a dyke. Now 250 hectares can be irrigated.

The population also makes many ladangs — a piece of forest, opened so far as necessary, to obtain one rice-harvest. This reckless rice-cultivation, in Sumatra still wanted and usual, has been restricted in Peureula by the rule that the laying out of a ladang is permitted only in the old pepper-gardens, which the ladang-makers must first clean. That is an excellent measure, by which the abandoned and ruined pepper-gardens do not degenerate into wilderness.

The Petroleum of Perlak

Near Rantau Pandjang, which lies north-west of Peureula, officers of the man-of-war Timor found the petroleum-spring in May 1875, led thither by Atjehnese chiefs. Where the oil welled up, the spring was fenced. The oil ran underground into a wooden basin, closed by a hatch. The crude oil collected in the basin was twice a day skimmed from the water with buckets of banana-leaf. Through a hole in the bottom of the bucket the scooped-up water ran out, and as soon as the brown-green oil began to run, the bucket was held over a hollow bamboo. One man could carry two or three hollow bamboos on his back to Rantau Pandjang, where the oil was sold to traders of Perlak and elsewhere. The further transport was in large earthen pots. Whoever walked with a bamboo full of oil had no need to fear a tiger’s attack, for these animals of Perlak shun the smell of oil. The yield of the spring had once been 60 gantang; in 1875 it was 40 gantang — about one picol — which at Rantau Pandjang brought nearly six dollars. The chief had a monthly income of two hundred dollars from it. Besides the principal spring there were three others in Perlak.

There now lie the oil-terrains of the Perlak Petroleum-Mij, which the Bataafsche Petroleum-Mij exploits, and the terrains of the famous Zuid-Perlak Petroleum-Mij. The Bataafsche does not process the oil on the spot but pumps it through a 120 km pipe-line to Pangkalan Brandan. Only the gases are compressed at Rantau Pandjang into oil, which is likewise pumped away. There is a substantial settlement there with about thirty Europeans.

The Oeléebalang

The oeléebalang of Peureula (Perlak) at the time of Broersma’s visit was Teukoe Tjhi Mohamad Thajeb, who had succeeded his father Teukoe Tjhi Perlak in 1913 at the moment when the oil-cijns was regularised into the landschapskas and the chief received a fixed income. From the oil the oeléebalang had drawn his riches, ‘die toch misschien wel overschat zijn’ — which perhaps may have been overrated. After 1912 the petroleum-cijns came into the landschapskas and the oeléebalang received a fixed income.

Account from Vijftig jaren economische staatkunde in Atjeh (1923)

Peureula was the petroleum tract within the landscape Perlak on the East Coast of Atjeh — a site where an “Indische markt” (Indian market) had existed for centuries and where oil was won from four dug wells sold locally — which after 1890 became the first great industrial establishment of Atjeh, worked by the Hollandsche Perlak Maatschappij and absorbed into the Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij’s Perlak operations.

The ancient wells

In Peureula, Langhout relates, an Indian market had existed since centuries, where the petroleum won from a quarter of dug pits was brought to the man; from here came the mineral oil which the East India Company in the eighteenth century now and then obtained from the Sultan of Atjeh, and which was very highly valued in patria as a medicament. In the first (pre-pacification) economic survey the Government ordered from 1893, Peureula is the only mineral site named in Atjeh: “In het landschap Peureula, ter Oostkust, werden petroleumbronnen gevonden, die op Inlandsche wijze werden geëxploiteerd.”

The companies

A few years after the Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij had staked its establishment Pangkalan Brandan just south of the provincial border in Langkat (1890), the Holland Perlak Maatschappij began its works on actual Atjehnese ground at Peureula. Governor Van Heutsz, who gave European mining his full interest, opened several tracts for private investigation and exploitation; “vooral in Peureula” were great and rich petroleum wells struck. In 1902–1903 wells were also bored at Langsar, Peudada, Idi, Djoelo Rajeu and Tjoenda. The Zuid Perlak company transferred its works to the Bataafsche, which pumped the crude oil from the landscape Peureula by a kilometres-long pipeline to Pangkalan Brandan and the new oil city Rantau Pandjang; in December 1922 the Bataafsche pumped “121197 ton” of crude oil from the tract of Peureula, with 598 tons that month from the Aloer Mas field to Rantau Pandjang (figures as printed). Under Governor Swart the petroleum concession of Zuid Perlak, exploited by “de Koninklijke”, was the foremost mineral concession of the province. In the same period the government experimented at Peureula with a Fordson tractor plough-demonstration (photo caption: “Ploegdemonstratie met een Fordsontractor te Peureula”).

The pacifying factory

Langhout records the “widely spread legend” that the military excursions often merely served to cover the new enterprises — and inverts it: the petroleum exploitations were one of the foremost factors of the pacification of that coast tract, because on the estates the Atjehnese for the first time knew the Hollander otherwise than as a soldier; the tact and knowledge of languages of the administrator Allein reconciled the surrounding population, so that he soon worked with 60% Atjehnese voluntary labour, and raiding bands on one occasion carried off all rice from the native and Chinese settlement yet left the full rice-barns of the enterprise untouched.

Account from Atjeh als land voor handel en bedrijf (1925)

Peureula, called Perlak in common corrupted pronunciation, was historic landscape on east coast of Atjeh, centrum gelijknamig landschap, counting 12,000 souls according to bestuur statement, in place Peureula about 800.

Name and historiography

Spelling of Atjeh place names established according to indication Dr. Snouck Hurgronje rendering Atjeh pronunciation. Europeans follow however pronunciation that became current among military. There is thus transmitted wrong pronunciation diverging from officially adopted correct spelling. In Peureula (Perlak) we enter historic landscape.

Marco Polo possibly there in last part 13th century: Ferlac he must have called it and told Mohammedan traders were masters and indigenous population cannibals. After centuries we explain there is still mixed population where Atjehers form large majority; furthermore land where much pepper planted and much oil won. Maybe over 60 years not more sayable and even over 6 years oil and pepper may be finished, for permanent on and in coastal soil Indies nothing.

Small municipality Peureula is centre gelijknamig landscape. In keude (kêdé) market street Chinese and tokos; 2nd class native school; girls school; small polyclinic with lying place for 10 people weekly twice visited by doctor of Langsa; office of oeléëbalang, landscape head. Outside along road poor little dwellings where population not belonging land houses. Large kampongs with better houses along rivers. Peureula River large, therefore several kampongs where earlier incomes for radja roomy.

Agriculture

Agriculture settled Atjeh population is padi cultivation on blang i.e., rice field; rain-dependent rice field. Very many blangs in whole Atjeh but like know of real sawahs. In Peureula short recently small waterworks undertaken, one improvement wadoek laid 1906 i.e., then started little dike. Now 250 hectares irrigated. Population lays much ladang, piece forest which for as needed digs to obtain one rice harvest. Reckless padi cultivation on Sumatra still desired usual, landscape administration in Peureula limited by determining that ladang only allowed in old pepper gardens which ladang builders must clean first. Excellent measure whereby abandoned decayed pepper gardens not perish to wilderness.

Peureula in contrast neighbouring landscapes old Atjeh settlement and also pepper cultivation of old date. Can imagine firstly pepper centuries sought spice secondly of old princes lands Indies large traders, receiving from small people, toll raising selling outside. Atjeh heads largely still business men and always been. If liked beautiful things, trader from outside Chinese Penang or Singapore knew what offer. If brought heads in debt, they needed only bring forth produce of land ready, pepper especially, delivering against favorable price before agreed.

Is Peureula old state, landscapes like Soengei Raja, Pedawa Raje, Simpang Olim young settlements arisen from pepper cultivation Atjeh emigrants. Such migrants had leaders and went mostly once year back to hearths. But brought gradually many family and were sawahs laid, then leaders grew to heads and from their midst could choose supreme head, prince, whom Sultan of Atjeh granted schenkbrief to preserve band under Atjeh people.

Fifty years ago east and west coast Atjeh had abundant pepper. See book J. A. Kruyt Atjeh en de Atjehers 1877: garden usually 5 thousand trees yielded 5 kojang = 1100 picol. Three or four men guarded and maintained garden, kept residence there and received besides daily maintenance half yield which half they again delivered at local market price to owner garden. Collection pepper gardens together called seuneubò (Kruyt wrote “seleboe”; probably misheard). He heard that east coast annually 5 to 6 thousand kojang pepper exported at Penang market prices between 200 and 250 pilaardollars per kojang price in August 1873: 3 year before price 90 pilaardollars.

Pepper data and credit system

Encyclopedisch Bureau De buitenbezitingen 1904-‘14 export pepper from Atjeh over 1913 just over 3 million kilogram, less than tenth of export 1873. Compare export 1913 from Lampoeng 12.5 million KG (200 thousand picol). Assume Atjeh years tremendous yields. Mention per Julius Jacobs 1893 no pepper significant harvested. Pepper cultivation over long series describes line with undulations: grows and decreases controlled by concurrence circumstances among can meet war activity (earlier), market price, rice scarcity, disease in crop.

From bestuur reliable figures: 1900 export 5,365,091 kg, 1899 Pidie and Edi nearly half more; 1911 still 4,514,461 kg then big collapse. West coast Atjeh not discussed but pepper regions east coast always people from Pidie, Samalangan, Peusangan, Pasei to plant pepper, settled temporary and earlier many stayed for good e.g., landscape Peureula.

Process: group 4-6 men under leader and asked ground at administration. Landscape administrator was oelèëbalang who under had some oelèëbalangs tjoet (oelèë= head, balang= army, tjoet= small). People needed little capital mainly to live as long garden yielded nothing i.e., 2-3 years; that capital provided oelèëbalang. Therefore pepper culture largely bound to heads. That disadvantages attached understood but easily overlook benefits and even no pepper without cooperation heads. Provider capital giver pangkai got from 3rd year onward some interest and repayment. Earlier debt about 25 gulden per arrived pepper planter, nowadays 100 gulden. For use ground paid hacil radja, lordly right; got again oelèëbalang. Adat pepper culture brought those payments and more e.g., for leader, head garden or peutoeha. So much deducted before pepper planter had wage; wasé pangkai, wasé oeléëbalang, wasé peutoeha and more wasé. Of old oelèëbalang also privileged buyer and thus from him came and to him went pepper cultivation.

Oeléëbalangs not always awaited pepper planters from elsewhere, but let when want place capital search pepper planters and such people knew how bound at hands and feet.

Dutch bestuur after pacification deliberate regulation pepper cultivation to secure and prevent abuse. Thought rights could be determined and at export via customs collected, while when “landscape” established as self-government area wasé oelèëbalang, ground right, landscape treasury belonged. Healer of pepper cultivation began weaken patient because attacked life source: oeléëbalang. Had he no pleasure more because much trouble little benefit, then no pepper.

In 1915 government with new regulation where customs not retained interference. Hacil tanah or wasé oelèëbalang would be divided 50 percent for landscape and 50 percent for pangkaigiver and peutoeha who during years from leader pepper planters became head municipality kepala kampong together. Also that regulation not encouraged capital provider.

No matter: government came with credit institution, afdeelingsbank; Langsa, Lho Seumawe, Koeta Radja got afdeelingsbank and they now help pepper to make free volksculture. Checked credit requests to judgment controller and this to that landscape head oelèëbalang. Head found generally spacious credit good. But banks had at loan to pepper planter no collateral and suffered quite loss. So banks forced to stay away from pepper.

Pepper cultivation in Atjeh carries large burdens. Practice now: hacil for oelèëbalang old lordly right 1 gulden per picol; capital provider mostly oelèëbalang or oelèëbalang-tjoet f 2.50 per picol where he gives peutoeha oldest representative oelèëbalang in pepper affairs grown to kampong head leader f 0.50. Then freight. Risk for pangkaigiver large because only third year first repayment receives. Pepper unprotected false play at hand.

When one now hears and sees pepper cultivation in Atjeh very weak, can in above sketched credit history one of causes weakness recognize.

There are more causes: 1918 disease in crop. Fairly fleeting investigation by Department of Agriculture led not to discovery as that of landbouwleeraar. Landscape head held disease for djamoer oepas. Was good maintenance in gardens probably disease less influence on crop. But see precisely that time pepper planters disappeared from region because rice scarcity existed. During three months 1919 each daily only one batok (=3 quarter katti) rice and that for Atjeher who no meat, no fish uses as daily food but twice day his rice with some salt, lombok and vegetable uses, not enough unless huge quantities rice consumes. And that he accustomed to do. When pepper planters short, departed to their regions Pidie, Pasei, Peusangan, where just much padi grows.

Third cause market listlessness: 1920 prices fell to end below amount at which Atjeher can succeed. Chinese Penang paid 3 to 4 gulden for picol, at most 7 gulden. Before war Europe price 10 gulden just enough to succeed per head assurance, per author matches price at that time Lampoeng mentioned as just profitable. Presently 13 to 14 gulden price below pepper planter not want work. Well that price in 1923 reached market and already sees here there pepper planter in garden. At firm market undoubtedly pepper cultivation Atjeh revives and not labour much effort long duration to withering gardens give fresh look unless disease appears very malignant.

Market cannot control, credit giving also not, but possible ensure presence enough rice. Oelèëbalang Peureula encourages now ordering sawahs. Are there who old pepper gardens again want to use then desires before ground processing takes place. Landscape Peureula interesting in brisk pepper has now motor plows and cultivates for people piece ground against payment e.g., 5 gulden for half baoe. Landscape with application motor plows somewhat lost but benefit connected not direct. For 1924 plowing brought to f 7.50 for half baoe.

Other products and economy

Padi and pepper, what has Atjeher Peureula besides? Naturally klappers and pinang; whole Atjeh full pinang though not meaning everywhere coconut and pinang palm excellently thrives. Atjeher Peureula makes from klapper nuts not copra but sells nuts then shipped to Langsa and Koeala Simpang where not enough coconut for own use population and enterprises. See Atjeher or wife to market keude Peureula with four klappers sold for 10 cent together to Chinese. Chinese and Atjeh buyers; some Chinese prepare oil for local use: small deal but durable.

Pinang palm little interest: grows and gives fruits. Some care in region like Peureula only to pinang bestowed when pepper nothing expected. Multiplies itself; must be cleared with wood still something to do. Pinang palm whose nuts ingredient sirih chew, stands in little gardens around kampong houses where also fruit trees: sawoe, mangistan, djeroek, nangka. Some have few rubber trees close to dwelling or in old pepper gardens. Tap started; latex coagulated with vinegar or alum; with wooden press makes sheets sells to Chinese at place or Langsa or Koeala Simpang.

Men occupy fruit cultivation as they keep forest felling and ground processing. But woman has large role in padi: plants, cuts and stamps. Stamps with leusoeng (pronounce lesoeng) block she with foot keeps in motion under little shed behind house. Because thereby little husk dedek of grain retains and can feed chickens, married Atjeher rather buys padi than rice.

Petroleum

Near Rantau Pandjang northwest Peureula found in May 1875 some officers Timor petroleum source led there by Atjeh heads. Where oil welled source enclosed with fence. Underground oil ran in wooden collection tank with lid closed. Raw oil collected in tank skimmed twice day from water with buckets of pisang leaf. Through hole under in buckets water ran away and as soon brown-green oil wanted run away held bucket above hollow bamboo. One man could 2 or 3 hollow bamboos on back to Rantau Pandjang carry where oil sold to traders Peureula and elsewhere. Further transport happened in large stone pots. Who with bamboo full oil walked needed not fear attack tigers because animals Peureula shun smell oil. Yield source earlier 60 gantang been, in 1875 still 40 gantang i.e., over picol, which at Rantau Pandjang yielded almost 6 dollar. Head monthly income 200 dollars. Besides main there were in Peureula three sources. Rolling stones near visited source proved on investigation consist weathered granite, quartz, quartzite, quartz conglomerate and siliceous sandstone per J. A. Kruyt.

Now there lie drilling terrains of Perlak Petroleum-Maatschappij which Bataafsche Petroleum-Maatschappij exploits, and terrains of famous Zuid-Perlak Petroleum-Maatschappij. Bataafsche processes oil not at place but pumps through pipeline 120 km to Pangkalan Brandan. Only gases at Rantau Pandjang compressed to oil which likewise pumped away. It is there sturdy settlement with about 30 Europeans. From oil oelèëbalang drew his riches which perhaps overestimated. After 1912 petroleum accijns in landscape treasury and oelèëbalang fixed income. He is region old heads author wishes to visit.

Account from Land en Volk van Atjeh Vroeger en Nu

Landschap (historic kingdom of Perlak) on Oostkust; petroleum traded as early as 16th century from natural seeps; first oil borings 1900 by Holland-Perlak Maatschappij; 128 km pipeline to Pangkalan Brandan refinery 1901; now in hands of N.V. Perlak Petroleum Mij. & N.V. Petroleum Mij. Zuid PerlakLocation of BPM oil fields; aerial cartography (luchtkaarteeringen) conducted from the1934 Idi/Peudawa landing field.

Source: J. Jongejans, Land en Volk van Atjeh Vroeger en Nu (Baarn: Hollandia Drukkerij N.V., c. 1938), pp. 85, 88, 208, 295.

Source

The Geology of Indonesia, by R. W. van Bemmelen, Vol. II: Economic Geology (The Hague: Government Printing Office; Martinus Nijhoff, 1949), p. 9 (Table 4: Oil production in the East Indies in 1940 and 1941). Verkenningen in Atjeh, by Dr. R. Broersma (De Locomotief, October 1923), chapter V, ‘Perlak, land van peper en olie’, pp. 27–37. Also Atjeh en de Atjehers, by J. A. Kruyt (Leiden 1877), for the 1875 discovery of the petroleum-spring. Wat Indië Ontving en Schonk, onder leiding van Dr. C. W. Wormser (Amsterdam: Wereldbibliotheek N.V., 1946), pp. 80–81 (chapter De oudste cultuurstroomen door Dr. F. H. van Naerssen). Atjeh in de Tweede Kamer: Debatten bij de behandeling der begrooting van Nederlandsch-Indië voor 1898, uitgave van de Sociaaldemokratische Arbeiderspartij in Nederland (Amsterdam: J. A. Fortuijn, 1897). Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, Br P95-178, pp. 38–40, 49, 59–60, 77–78. Acknowledgement of sources. This article combines material from the publications cited above; the material newly added derives from Atjeh in de Tweede Kamer (Amsterdam: J. A. Fortuijn, 1897) and Een strijd in Atjeh (Rotterdam: N.V. Drukkerij Korteweg for the Vereeniging „SIMAVI”, 1934). Dutch passages are quoted in the original with an English rendering. Nederlandsch Indië Platen Atlas met korte beschrijvingen, uitgegeven door Volkslectuur, Weltevreden, Java. Weltevreden: G. Kolff & Co., January 1926. Chapter IV (Godsdienst), p. 75. Vijftig jaren economische staatkunde in Atjeh, by Joh. Langhout (The Hague: N.V. Boekhandel v/h W. P. van Stockum & Zoon, 1923), pp. 68, 83–85, 160–163, illustration captions pp. 135, 160–162. Atjeh als land voor handel en bedrijf, by Dr. R. Broersma, Gebrs. Cohen, Utrecht, 1925, pp. 25-34.

Land en Volk van Atjeh Vroeger en Nu, by J. Jongejans, Oud-Resident van het Gewest Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden, with a foreword by Dr. H. Colijn (Baarn: Hollandia Drukkerij N.V., c. 1938), pp. 85, 88, 208, 295.

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