Heerendienst

The Heerendienst (“corvée labour service,” plural heerendiensten) was the Dutch colonial system of obligatory unpaid labour by which the population of the Outer Possessions — including Atjeh — was required to provide labour for public works, principally road construction. In the Encyclopaedisch Bureau’s account, the heerendienst was the principal labour instrument of the older, pre-systematic phase of road construction in the Buitenbezittingen: the phase in which roads were built “on initiative of the administrative side” and “gradually in heerendienst” — that is, by forced labour under the direction of administrative officials rather than by centrally planned technical service.

Account from De Buitenbezittingen (1917) — Heerendienst

The Encyclopaedisch Bureau’s account of the heerendienst appears in the chapter on the B.O.W.’s road construction in the Buitenbezittingen. The Bureau’s narrative of the older, pre-systematic phase of road construction is explicit about the role of the heerendienst: “before that time roads arose mostly on initiative of the administrative side and were then gradually built in heerendienst. First an unpaved path arose, with temporary small bridges or primitive ferries over the larger and smaller rivers. Then the path was widened, sometimes a paving was applied, while successively the trace was improved by numerous small re-routings, all likewise in heerendienst, sometimes with the help of the Gouvernement for the removal of obstacles, etc. In course of time the river crossings were then improved and permanent bridges built, which, where possible, was done in free labour.”

The Bureau notes that this way of working “often required years of labour before [the road] was suitable for any significant wheeled transport” — a slow and labour-intensive process that reflected the limited technical resources available to the administrative officials. The Bureau also notes that “the construction of such roads was mostly possible only in densely populated regions and in terrain that did not offer too many obstacles,” with the result that “the existing network almost everywhere has a pronounced local, or at most regional, character.”

The Bureau’s account of the Sumatra road plan of the B.O.W. then identifies the systematic road plan as the replacement of the older heerendienst system: “where the increasing economic prosperity of the Buitenbezittingen increasingly made the need felt for a better traffic system, also between the gewesten mutually, a centralisation of the construction was necessary, since the fragmentation of the construction over various local networks could not provide certainty that real traffic arteries would arise.” The Bureau notes that, of the fifteen principal Sumatra road projects listed, the construction “on the usual way (in heerendienst)” was not possible for the systematic road plan “both because of the sparse population in the intersected regions and because of the difficult terrain.”

The Bureau’s account of the funding of smaller works in the rechtstreeks bestuurd gebied also notes the continuing role of the heerendienst: “often the help of this Department [the B.O.W.] is not invoked for smaller works (market sheds, culverts and small bridges, road construction, etc.), which are of economic importance or relieve the heerendienst, but the administrative officials seek, with the use of local funds — especially the fund for the afkoop (buy-out) of heerendiensten — to speed up the execution thereof in free labour.” The institution of the afkoop (buy-out) of heerendiensten — a fund by which the population could pay to be exempted from the heerendienst — is itself an index of the gradual replacement of the heerendienst by free labour in the post-1904 period.

Significance

The heerendienst is, in the Encyclopaedisch Bureau’s account, the principal labour instrument of the older, pre-systematic phase of road construction in the Buitenbezittingen — the system by which the population of the outer possessions, including Atjeh, was obliged to provide unpaid labour for public works. The gradual replacement of the heerendienst by free labour in the 1904–1914 decade — through the Sumatra road plan of the B.O.W. and through the institution of the afkoop (buy-out) fund — marks one of the principal social reforms of the post-pacification consolidation.

Account from Atjèh by J. Kreemer (Deel II)

Kreemer provides the following detailed account of heerendiensten in Atjèh specifically.

Heerendiensten was the Dutch colonial system of forced labour services for public works (road, bridge, dam construction) in Atjèh. Not native to Atjèhnese adat, it was introduced in 1898 for road construction under military supervision, without formal regulation. Often excessive demands caused population flight.

Van Heutsz’s Instructie voor de onderafdeelingschefs in de Onderhoorigheden of 7 May 1902 limited heerendiensten to 52 days per year per man and required weighing benefit to local population.

The first formal heerendiensten regulation for the afdeeling Groot-Atjèh was issued as Stbl. 1908 N°. 509, effective 1 October 1908. The maximum was 24 days per year per man. Modified by Stbl. 1910 N°. 471, 1913 N°. 37, 1918 N°. 710.

Heerendiensten in the directly-governed territory of onderafdeeling Singkel was regulated by Stbl. 1909 N°. 525 j°. 1910 N°. 471, 637; 1913 N°. 37; 1918 N°. 710, effective 1 January 1910. The maximum was 36 days per year per man.

From 1 January 1919, heerendiensten were abolished for the first construction and major realignments/improvements of the large paved through-roads in the gewest (both Gouvernements- and zelfbestuursgebied), by Stbl. 1918 N°. 710.

Trial of complete afkoop (commutation) began in 1919 in landschap Peureula’ and onderafdeeling Lhö’ Nga. Extended 1920–1921 to: entire afdeeling Groot Atjèh, onderafdeelingen Sigli, Meureudoe, large parts of Lhö’ Soekön, Idi, Langsa, Tëmiang. The afkoop price was ƒ3 per person per year. The complementary Hoofdgeldordonnantie voor de Buitengewesen (Stbl. 1921 N°. 225) replaced heerendienst obligation with a money payment according to ability.

Heerendiensten was distinguished from meuseuraja — the Atjèhnese practice of mutual aid among neighbours (e.g., for agricultural work), either reciprocally or for a small food gift. Meuseuraja was a voluntary, reciprocal practice rooted in adat, while heerendiensten was a colonial imposition.

Account from Schets eener parlementaire geschiedenis (1955)

The following account is drawn from the parliamentary history of the Dutch Second Chamber as narrated by Vermeulen in the colonial section of the 1955 fourth revised edition of Rengers’s *Schets*.

The Herendienst (in Atjeh) — the corvée labour system imposed on the Atjehnese population in the post-pacificatie period — comprised the obligation to provide spionnen- and gidsendiensten (spy- and guide-services) and other unpaid labour for the Dutch colonial administration. The system is the principal object of Van Deventer’s 1908 parliamentary critique of the Van Heutsz-Van Daalen administration of Atjeh.

The Van Deventer critique

In the 1908 Tweede Kamer debate on the June 1908 report of governor-general Van Heutsz, Van Deventer (v.d.) declared that the mishandling of the hoofden (chiefs) was not the principal cause of the continuing unrest in Atjeh. The cause was, rather, that “de onderwerping voor rekening van de Atjehers zelf” — the subjugation was being charged to the Atjehnese themselves:

“Men legde de bevolking zware lasten en boeten op en vorderde zelfs spionnen- en gidsendiensten als herendienst. Had Van Heutsz in 1893 niet zelf geschreven: ‘wij zitten niet in Atjeh om vliegen te vangen en maar steeds onze millioenen weg te werpen; Atjeh moet onderworpen worden, dat is de zaak, en om dit resultaat na al ons morsen en knoeien nog te erlangen moet Atjeh zelf betalen wat daarvoor voortaan nog aan dit land wordt ten koste gelegd’?”

— Heavy burdens and fines were imposed on the population, and even spy- and guide-services were demanded as herendiensten (corvée). Had Van Heutsz not written in 1893: “we are not in Atjeh to catch flies and to keep throwing away our millions; Atjeh must be subjugated, that is the point, and to obtain this result after all our messing and botching Atjeh itself must pay what is henceforth to be spent on this land”?

The 1893 source

The cited passage is from Van Heutsz’s brochure of 1893 — De onderwerping van Atjeh — and is preserved by Vermeulen with the citation: “J. B. van Heutsz, De onderwerping van Atjeh, blz. 79”. Van Deventer suspected that governor-general Van Heutsz had permitted Van Daalen to act in accordance with this 1893 view, and had only abandoned him when the December 1907 inspection tour had made the unworkability of “this harsh and grasping policy” plain.

The IJzerman defence

IJzerman (u.l.) thought it unfair to pursue Van Heutsz with a brochure fifteen years old. “Hebben dan alleen de grote mannen in Nederland het recht om er oude plunje op na te houden?” — Have then only the great men in the Netherlands the right to keep old clothes in the closet? Why not rejoice that Van Heutsz had outgrown Van Daalen?

Significance

The herendienst system is, in the Vermeulen retrospective, the principal material burden imposed on the Atjehnese population by the post-conquest administration. The Van Deventer critique of 1908 is the canonical liberal exposure of the contradiction between the pacificatie rhetoric of the ethical-policy state and the herendienst reality of the Atjehnese administration.

Account from Zelfbestuursverordeningen Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden (1930) — the Bireuën regulation (No. 14)

The Zelfbestuursverordeningen compilation of 1930 records the principal heerendienst regulation of the Zelfbestuur-period — Reg. No. 14, the Zelfbestuursverordening of 18 August 1928 for the onderafdeeling Bireuën. The regulation was issued jointly by the three oeleebalang of Samalanga, Peusangan, and Gloempang-doea — the three Zelfbestuurders of the Bireuën landschappen — under the bilingual signatory formula:

“Kami Oeleebalang dari Landschap: Samalanga, Peusangan, Gloempan-doea. De Inlandsche Zelfbestuurders van de landschappen: Samalanga, Peusangan en Gloempang-doen hebben na goedkeuring door den Gouverneur van Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden, besloten: Vast te stellen de navolgende regelen betreffende den aard en den duur der persoonlijke diensten, waartoe derzelver onderhoorigen verplicht zijn en de gevallen waarin, benevens de wijze waarop zij kunnen worden gevorderd dan wel afgekocht”.

The regulation was approved by the Gouverneur van Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden on 12 September 1928 and entered into force on 1 January 1929. The comparative table on Page 109 of the compilation extends parallel regelingen to all eighteen other onderafdeelingen of the Gouvernement — Meureudoe, Sigli, Lammeulo, Padangtidji, Bireuën, Lhokseumawe, Idi, Lhoksoekon, Langsa, Tamiang, Takingeun, Serbeudjadi, Gajo LoeBus, Alaslanden, Tjalang, Tapaktoean, Meulaboh, the Zuidelijke Atjehsche landschappen — all with the same inwerkingtreding of 1 January 1929. The synchronised Gouvernement-wide rollout of the heerendienst-regeling was, in this sense, the most extensive comparative-table extension in the entire 1930 compilation.

The liability and the age-limit

The heerendienst was, in the constitutional order of the zelfbestuur, the principal personal-service obligation of the anak negeri — the native subjects of a Zelfbestuur, as distinct from the ra’jat Gouvernement sedjati (direct Gouvernement-subjects) — to the colonial state. Reg. No. 14 §1 fixed the liability in its defining form:

“(1) Behoudens de in de volgende paragraaf te vermelden uitzonderingen zijn heerendienst-plichtig alle tot de onderhoorigen van het Landschap behoorende werkzame mannelijke ingezetenen”.

The liability thus extended to all workbare male inhabitants of the landschap who were onderhoorigen of the Zelfbestuur. The age-limit was set at fifty: “(2) Als werkzaam worden aangemerkt zij, die lichamelijk in staat zijn om zonder gevaar voor hunne gezondheid in eigen levensonderhoud te voorzien en den leeftijd van 50 jaren nog niet hebben bereikt” — those who are physically capable of providing for their own livelihood without danger to their health and who have not yet reached the age of fifty years.

The exemption categories

Reg. No. 14 §2 established an extensive list of exemption categories, drawn from the constitutional structure of the zelfbestuur and the colonial order of precedence:

• (a) ambtenaren en beambten in dienst van het landschap, hereditary heads in the landschap, the heads of the population appointed or recognised by the Zelfbestuur, their family members (so far as existing custom and the European Bestuursambtenaar agreed), and the members and advisers of the native courts;
• (b) retired Gouvernements officials who had served twenty years or more, with a discretionary exemption for those with shorter service;
• (c) holders of Dutch colonial decorations — persons entitled to wear a Dutch ridderorde (knighthood), or decorated with the medaille for 12 or 24 years’ loyal military service, the medaille for moed en trouw (courage and loyalty), the tanda for eervol vermelden (honourable mention), or the bintang (star) for trouw en verdiensten (loyalty and merit), together with pensioned military personnel;
• (d) the Islamic religious personnel — the geestelijken (clergy), the voorgangers in den godsdienst (religious leaders), the moskee personeel (mosque staff), and the persons charged with the care of heilige graven (holy graves) — “allen voor zoover erkend door het Inlandsch Zelfbestuur in overeenstemming met den betrokken Europeeschen Bestuursambtenaar”;
• (e) members of the colonial Volksraad — the People’s Council established in 1918; and
• (f) the residual discretionary exemption — persons who, by the nature of their office or their descent, were granted exemption by the Inlandsch Zelfbestuur in agreement with the European Bestuursambtenaar, with the proviso that existing rights (reeds verkregen rechten) would be respected.

Disputes on exemptions were decided by the Gouverneur van Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden in highest instance (§3). The first category’s family-exemption — “Familie dari kepala-kepala jang terseboet jang menoe-roet adat tiada dikenakan rodi (hal ini dipotoeskan semoepakat met Ambtenaar Europa)” — “Families of the chiefs mentioned who according to adat are not subject to rodi (this is decided in agreement with the European official)” — preserved, in the regulation, the adat exemptions for the families of oeleebalang, keuchi’, and ulama.

The maxima and the koeliearbeid restriction

Reg. No. 14 §4 established the permissible categories of heerendiensten: roads not part of the groote verharde verkeerswegen (major paved through-roads); bridges and dammers; irrigation works; and the transport of Gouvernements goods and monies and of travelling landsdienaren and their goods. The heerendiensten were expressly distinguished from the gampong-meunasah / seuneubo’ services — the village-level services the anak negeri owed to the kampong — which remained outside the scope of the regulation. Reg. No. 14 §5 fixed the maxima:

“Orang boleh disoeroeh bekerdja rodi sebanjak-banjaknja 22 hari dalam setahoen” / “bedraagt het maximum der in één jaar te verrichten heerendiensten twee en twintig dagen arbeid per heerendienstplichtige”.

“Orang rodi boleh disoeroeh bekerdja selama-lamanja 12 djam sehari” / “De duur van een dag arbeid … bedraagt ten hoogste 12 uren”.

The annual maximum was thus 22 days per heerendienstplichtige; the daily maximum was 12 hours; and new works (nieuwe werken) were limited to 12 days per year. Reg. No. 14 §10 restricted the heerendienst to koeliearbeid — unskilled labour — and absolutely excluded skilled labour: “De arbeid der heerendienst-plichtigen bepaalt zich uitsluitend tot koeliearbeid.” The anak negeri were not required to deliver materials or tools (paid or unpaid) for the heerendienst, except where analogous Gouvernements-granted exemptions existed elsewhere (§11). The heerendienst was further restricted in time: it was to be performed at fixed periods that did not conflict with the sawah-cultivation season or the poeasa-month (the Ramadan fast):

“Pekerdjaan memboeat djalan, djembatan, pipa, senneulob dan bandar-bandar seboleh-bolehnja dikerdjakan op waktoe jang tetap jang tiada bersamaan met waktoe orang bekerdja sawah atau pekerdjaan lain boeat penghidoepannja en djangan poela dalam boelan poeasa”.

Substitution, commutation (afkoop), and the 8% collecteloon

Reg. No. 14 §7 established the substitution and commutation rules. Substitution (§7(2)) was permitted: every heerendienstplichtige who was unable to perform his share personally could substitute another work-capable person, accepted by the kepala (chief). Commutation (afkoop) was regulated in §7(3):

“(3) Heerendienstplichtigen kunnen desgewenscht door vooruitbetaling van een door het Zelfbestuur in overeenstemming met het Hoofd van Gewestelijk Bestuur vast te stellen bedrag vermeerderd met 8% collecteloon daar, waar die vermeerdering gebruikelijk is, halfjaarlijks hun heerendienst afkoopen”.

The afkoopbedrag was thus fixed by the Zelfbestuur in consultation with the Hoofd van Gewestelijk Bestuur — not by a uniform metropolitan tariff — and was payable half-yearly in advance. Where collecteloon (collection fee) was customary, the afkoopbedrag was increased by 8%. Disputes between the oeleebalang and the European Bestuursambtenaar on whether a given service fell under the rodi or the gampong-dienst category were decided by the Gouverneur van Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden (§4 lid 2). The oeleebalang’s authority to exact paid rodi-diensten for landschapswerken, B.O.W.-werken, and military landswerken outside the normal heerendienst categories required the prior vergunning of the Gouverneur-Generaal van Nederlandsch-Indië (§4 lid 3).

The penalty and the cross-references

Reg. No. 14 Fatsal 2 fixed the penalty for non-performance of the heerendienst:

“(1) Hij, die het verrichten van op grond van deze regeling geëischt heerendiensten zonder geldige redenen nalaat, wordt gestraft met hechtenis van ten hoogste drie dagen of geldboete van tien gulden”.

The penalty was thus three days’ hechtenis (detention) or a geldboete of ƒ 10 — a notably lower maximum than the standard ƒ 100 / three months’ hechtenis that characterised the other regulations in the compilation, reflecting the preventive rather than punitive character of the heerendienst-regulation. A repeat offence within six months could be punished with three months’ hechtenis (Fatsal 2(2)). Reg. No. 14 §13 cross-referenced the Gouvernement-wide heerendienst-ordonnantie (Staatsblad 1927 No. 206) and the afkoopregeling (Staatsblad 1918 No. 772):

“Bij de uitvoering dezer regeling zullen zooveel mogelijk toegepast worden de door het Nederlandsch-Indisch Gouvernement vastgestelde voorschriften ter uitvoering van de ordonnantie tot regelung der heerendiensten in het rechtstreeks bestuurd gebied van het Gouvernement Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden (Staatsblad 1927 No. 206) en de afkoopregeling bedoeld bij Staatsblad 1918 No. 772”.

The Bireuën zelfbestuursverordening thus incorporated, by cross-reference, the operational framework of the Gouvernement-wide ordonnantie — the constitutional instrument by which the Zelfbestuur’s own heerendienst-regulation was aligned with the colonial state’s heerendienst-policy in the directly-administered territory. This is the zelfbestuur-period codification of the institution Kreemer records for 1898 and the 1902 Instructie of Van Heutsz — the institutional form the heerendienst took in the 1920s after the 1908–1918 regulation-and-commutation reforms Kreemer describes.

Significance of the 1930 account

The 1930 heerendienst-regulation’s significance in the Aceh Wiki History record rests on three things: it codified, in the Zelfbestuur-period form, the labour-service obligation Kreemer records for 1898 and the 1902 Instructie — extending it to all zelfbesturende landschappen of the Gouvernement by the comparative table on Page 109; it most clearly revealed the constitutional structure of the zelfbestuur and the colonial order of precedence the Korte Verklaring had bound to the colonial state, through its extensive exemption categories (landschap officials, hereditary heads, retired Gouvernements officials, holders of Dutch decorations, geestelijken, Volksraad-leden) and the adat exemptions for the families of oeleebalang, keuchi’, and ulama; and its operational architecture — the 22-day annual maximum, the 12-hour daily maximum, the koeliearbeid restriction, the poeasa-season avoidance, the locally-negotiated afkoop with the 8% collecteloon supplement, the cross-references to Staatsblad 1927 No. 206 and Staatsblad 1918 No. 772 — most clearly reveals the combination of labour-extraction and customary accommodation that characterised Dutch indirect rule in Atjeh after the pacification.

Account from Verkenningen in Atjeh (1923)

The Heerendienst — lord’s service, corvée labour — was the colonial government’s labour-tax on the Atjehnese population, by which each adult male was required to render a certain number of days’ labour on public works. In Atjeh the heerendienst was 24 days a year, which the Atjehnese could commute for three guilders in a whole year. The low commutation-fee is, in Broersma’s view, one of the obstacles to the construction of great public-works by the government: the high day-wage of 60 cents, against which stands the fact that the Atjehnese commutes his heerendienst for only three guilders in a whole year, makes the great works expensive, while the Atjehnese finds his own simple works, like the locèng, better. The Gajos, by contrast, do not commonly commute their heerendienst: ‘Zijn 24 dagen heerendienst kan hij afkoopen met 3 gulden, maar hij koopt gemeenlijk niet af.‘

Road building and the heerendienst

A most important part of the administrative work remained road building: the country had to be opened in all directions, and the all-sidedness of the requirement created difficulty because funds were limited and needs very great. One had therefore to begin with the main roads — the coast roads.

Such road-building, as a rule combined with heerendiensten, “naturally aroused reluctance among an extremely indolent population that made do quite happily with vertical little footpaths.” But road-building where well executed, and not carried out as a show-piece or an “inspectietroef,” reached far above the immediate daily convenience of the toean, “because he opened up the tightly closed country, because he brought better and faster communications and so promoted trade and mutual intercourse.”

“Of course construction by corvée labour was the easiest and the only financially possible way.”

The regulation of 11 August 1908

On 11 August 1908 the statutory regulation of the heerendienst came into force. The maximum number of heerendienst days was reduced from fifty-two to twenty-four, while proposals were submitted to make redemption (afkoop) possible.

“But those proposals entailed that the convict labourer or the free labourer would have to do the work on the road — very much more expensive and impossible to pay out of the small commutation sums: the dilemma that all the Outer Provinces have experienced.”

The consequences after 1918

The redemption sums of the heerendiensten, plus what the budget could make available for construction and maintenance, were — du Croo wrote of the state of affairs in 1925 — “om te weenen.” Seven years after Swart’s administration it was “sad and shameful” to establish the neglect of roads and bridges: there was no money for road-building, nor for maintenance, hardening or paint for the bridges. Along the coast road the iron bridge railings had everywhere rusted away because they were no longer painted.

Significance (du Croo, 1943)

The road network Swart laid down “on gravel roads — then metalling” was, in du Croo’s judgement, the basis of the traffic net that opened Atjeh: “the slogan ‘roads, roads and once again roads’ proved, despite all disparaging and destructive criticism, to be the administrative motto of those first years.” That it was built by heerendienst was, on his account, the unavoidable price of building it at all.

The Koloniaal Verslag records elsewhere that in the pacified districts of 1913–1918 the regular performance of the heerendienst was one of the standard indicators of a favourable political situation.

Account in Hooijer’s De verlaten posten in Groot-Atjeh (1897)

Tandoe

A tandoe was a carrying-litter used in the Netherlands Indies for the transport of the sick, the wounded and baggage, carried by coolies in the columns and transports of Groot-Atjeh.

In the vivres transport

G. B. Hooijer described the fortnightly provision transport on the road through the IX Moekims: behind the ox-carts loaded with rice came een drom van koelies (porters), gedeeltelijk gehuurde Atjehers, die tandoes en vivres transporteeren — a crowd of coolies, partly hired Achehnese, transporting tandoes and provisions — and the long train, moving slowly under the burning Indies sun over the uneven and often muddy road, was closed by a rearguard securing the rear against klewang attacks.

Vivres

Vivres — provisions — and the fortnightly transports that carried them were the logistic lifeline of the Dutch outposts of Groot-Atjeh and one of the recurrent subjects of the plates of De verlaten posten in Groot-Atjeh.

The fortnightly transport

G. B. Hooijer used the plate of the road over the bare hills of the IX Moekims to explain the necessity of roads in such terrain, which became clear only when one considered the scale of het veertiendaagsch transport van vivres. At one of the many small bridges over the muddy ditches and creeks stood the advance party of the transport in the practical rather than picturesque clothing of the Indies soldier; some 150 metres behind, ox-carts loaded with rice showed above the alang-alang (coarse tall grass); behind them came a crowd of coolies, partly hired Achehnese, carrying tandoes and provisions; and the long train, moving slowly under the burning sun over the uneven and often muddy road, was closed by a rearguard whose furthest men secured the rear against klewang attacks by prowling marauders.

The daily cart

At Lam Koenjit the cart with vivres arrived daily towards the midday meal, under a small covering party of Achehnese, and nog wel eens beschoten werd — was still now and then fired at. It brought the letters, and its arrival was, Hooijer wrote, the most important hour of the day.

Diet under siege

During the investment of Biloel from 29 March 1896, Hooijer recorded that provisions were sufficient: only the toespijzen (side-dishes accompanying rice) accompanying the rice, and bread, were too few; stockfish and tinned minced meat were in abundance, and a couple of buffaloes and a goat that were shot replaced fresh meat. At Anagaloeng the garrison was left to itself for eighteen days, gelukkig ruimschoots voorzien van vivres en munitie.

Attacks on transports

Hostile marksmen fired persistently on Dutch transports near Anagaloeng, which was the reason for the order to patrol that produced Kapitein Blokland’s action of 7 March 1896. The road between Tjot Goeë and Biloel had been so unsafe that covering troops had to be pushed forward to Lam Koenjit and volleys fired into the kampongs (villages) before the transport could pass, which led to the erection of the intermediate post there on 4 July 1894.

Account from Atjeh als land voor handel en bedrijf (1925)

Heerendienst was compulsory labour imposed on Atjeh population, institution that volks household of old not knew, 24 days maximum per ordonnance for Atjeh.

Practice per Broersma

During Gajo-weg construction much heerendienst occurred and wegenfonds sacrificed country treasury support. Between Bireuen and Takengon excellent piece labour.

In advertisement book 1923 claimed population only two days had to come for obligatory labour. Author states deceit: heerendienst ordonnance for Atjeh 24 days states maximum. In praised period with blessings loving governor H. N. A. Swart 1908-1918 heerendienst here there repeatedly above maximum came. Charging much heerendienst counted then among officials as expression brisk bestuurvoering. Institution Atjeh traditional household never knew sensitive pressure many emigrated. When 1919 after ending praised period with redemption heerendienst beginning continued 1920 1921 returnees came.

In Takengon Gajo 24 days heerendienst can buy off 3 gulden but usually not. Labour road not heavy own labour watercourses irrigation likes clever.

In Koeta Radja first civil governor speech February 1919 principles: taxes and heerendiensten including gemeentediensten may not be raised; binding population incomprehensible police regulations forbidden etc.

Begroting collective landscapes afdeeling Pidie 1923: afkoop heerendienst 86,900 gulden income among 457,103 total.

See Also

• 1893
• 1904
• 1908
• 1914
• 1918
• 1927
• 1928
• 1929
• 1930
• Adat
• Anak negeri
• Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden
• B.O.W. (Burgerlijke Openbare Werken)
• Bireuën
• Buitenbezittingen
• C. Th. van Deventer
• Civiel en Militair Gouverneur van Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden
• De onderwerping van Atjeh (Van Heutsz, 1893)
• Departement der Burgerlijke Openbare Werken
• Ethische Politiek
• G. C. E. van Daalen
• Gajo-land
• Gloempang-doea
• IJzerman (vrij-liberaal MP)
• J. B. van Heutsz
• Korte Verklaring
• Locèng
• Oeleebalang
• Pacificatie van Atjeh
• Pantjang Alas
• Panté Lhong
• Peusangan
• Samalanga
• Van Heutsz’s report on Atjeh (June 1908)
• Verkenningen in Atjeh (1923)
• Volksraad
• Wadoek
• Wegenplan Sumatra
• Zelfbestuur
• Zelfbestuursverordening
• Zelfbestuursverordeningen Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden
• Het Pacificeerende Bestuurswerk 1908-1918
• H. N. A. Swart
• Gajòweg
• Maurice Henri du Croo
• Buitengewesten
• Vrije koelies
• Cornelis Jacobus Snijders
• Lamara Olejlo fortification (15 February 1875)
• Bataillon Mineurs en Sappeurs
• Aceh War
• 1874
• 1875
• Spoorweg
• Koeta
• Tuchtiging
• Razing of Lam-Asan (30 May – 2 June 1896)
• Ladoeng landing (22–23 June 1896)
• Geconcentreerde Linie
• Ambulance
• Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij
• 1896
• Groot-Atjeh
• Korps Marechaussee van Atjeh en Onderhorigen
• Koninklijk Nederlandsch-Indisch Leger
• 1e Divisie Marechaussee
• 2e Divisie Marechaussee
• Tangsi
• Veltman
• Jhr. Graafland
• Kimoen
• Jenae
• Blang Kedjeren
• Gajoetocht (1904)
• Defection of Teukoe Oemar (1896)
• 1905
• 19th-century
• 20th-century
• Bezettingskorps in Atjeh
• Zeehoofd
• Cholera catastrophe at Kota Radja (February 1875)
• Crisis at Kota Radja (May–June 1874)
• Klewang
• Vereniging Het Roode Kruis in Atjeh
• Indische Stoomboot-maatschappij
• Pantej Perak
• Kota Podjoet
• Patrol to the Goeah Teroes on the Glé Betoes (25 September 1897)
• Three-day battle in the Beradin pass (23-25 May 1896)
• Drijber
• Koloniale Reserve
• Kerkhof Petjoet
• Vivres
• Tjot Goeë
• IX Moekims
• Kettingganger
• Lam Koenjit
• Biloel
• Anagaloeng
• Tandoe
• Van Blokland
• Gajo-weg
• Pidie
• Takengon

Account from Land en Volk van Atjeh Vroeger en Nu

Native overseer; one Sigli mandoer appropriated provisions meant for lepers and was dismissed.

Source: J. Jongejans, Land en Volk van Atjeh Vroeger en Nu (Baarn: Hollandia Drukkerij N.V., c. 1938), pp. 386.

Source

D. van den Berg, Cornelis Jacobus Snijders (1852–1939): Een leven in dienst van zijn Land en zijn Volk (Voorburg: September 1944), pp. 32–33. Koninklijke Bibliotheek shelfmark 0301 4872. ATJEH ‘96, door A. Kruisheer, Kapitein der Infanterie O.I.L., met 2 kaarten en 4 portretten (Weltevreden: N.V. Boekhandel Visser & Co, 1913). Instituut Kern, Leiden. OCR-filename: 20260715_163243_DLP-89-Atjeh_96_Met_2_kaarten_en4_DOORA_KRUISHEER_Kapiteinder_Infanterie_nemoretriever-ocr-v1_OCR.txt, pp. 66, 68–69, 71, 73, 75, 81, 83, 86, 88, 91, 95, 101, 105–106, 108–110, 117, 119–121, 199, 216, 227, 229, 238, 240, 247, 293–294, 301, 308–309, 322, 324, 342–343. Atjeh, door H.C. Zentgraff. Gedrukt bij Drukkerij “De Unie”, 1938, Batavia. OCR-filename: 20260709_002148_DLP-81-Atjeh_OCR.txt. Onze vestiging in Atjeh, critisch beschreven, by G. F. W. Borel, Kapitein der Artillerie. ‘s-Gravenhage: D. A. Thieme, 1878. pp. 117–118, 122–130, 144–148, 167, 168–169, 254–258. Schetsen uit den strijd op Groot-Atjeh, met speciaal vervaardigde kaart en toepasselijke photo’s, bewerkt door P. H. R. Beuming, oud-onderofficier van het Ned.-Indische Leger (Amsterdam, December 1911; uitgegeven ten bate van het te stichten Herstellingsoord voor Rijks-Ambtenaren). Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, Br N 82-144 Acknowledgement of sources. The material in this article derives from Schetsen uit den strijd op Groot-Atjeh, met speciaal vervaardigde kaart en toepasselijke photo’s, bewerkt door P. H. R. Beuming, oud-onderofficier van het Ned.-Indische Leger (Amsterdam, December 1911). Dutch passages are quoted in the original with an English rendering. Verkenningen in Atjeh, by Dr. R. Broersma (De Locomotief, October 1923), chapters X, XII, ‘In het land van Peusangan’ and ‘In het hart van Gajo-land’, pp. 68, 85. De Buitenbezittingen 1904 tot 1914, Deel I, bewerkt door het Encyclopaedisch Bureau, Mededeelingen van het Bureau voor de Bestuurszaken der Buitenbezittingen, Aflevering X (Weltevreden: Landsdrukkerij, 1917), pp. 52–56 (section “De aanleg van wegen op de Buitenbezittingen”), p. 48 (section “Het Departement der B. O. W.”). Atjèh. Algemeen samenvattend overzicht van land en volk van Atjèh en onderhoorigheden, door J. Kreemer, Archivaris van het Atjèh Instituut. Tweede Deel. Leiden: N.V. Boekhandel en Drukkerij voorheen E.J. Brill, 1923. Identifier: Delpher MMKB02B:000001798. Schets eener parlementaire geschiedenis van Nederland van 1849 tot 1901, by Mr W. J. van Welderen baron Rengers, 4th rev. ed., Vol. IV: Oost-Indië 1891-1918 by Dr W. H. Vermeulen (‘s-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1955), pp. 273-275. J. B. van Heutsz, De onderwerping van Atjeh (1893), p. 79. Zelfbestuursverordeningen Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden. Serie A No. 9 of the Mededeelingen van de Afdeeling Bestuurszaken der Buitengewesen van het Departement van Binnenlandsch Bestuur. Weltevreden: Landsdrukkerij, 1930, esp. pp. 80–95 (Reg. No. 14, the Zelfbestuursverordening of 18 August 1928 for the onderafdeeling Bireuën), and p. 109 (the comparative table extending parallel regelingen to all eighteen other onderafdeelingen). OCR-filename: 20260719_030404_DLP-112-Zelfbestuursverordeningen_Atjeh_en_onderhoorigheden_Nemotron-OCR-v2_OCR.txt. Verkenningen in Atjeh, by Dr. R. Broersma (De Locomotief, October 1923); Atjeh Patchouli-Olie, by Ir. W. Spoon (1932), where applicable. Generaal Swart, Pacificator van Atjeh (“General Swart, Pacifier of Atjeh”), by M. H. du Croo, Colonel K.N.I.L. (retired), with the collaboration of H. J. Schmidt, Titular Colonel K.N.I.L. (retired), with a foreword by His Excellency Lieutenant-General K.N.I.L. (retired) G. K. Dijkstra (Maastricht: N.V. Leiter-Nypels, 1943), Chapter IV, p. 23; Chapter XIII, pp. 135–136; Chapter XII, p. 122. De verlaten posten in Groot-Atjeh, door G. B. Hooijer, Gep. Luit.-Kolonel O. I. Leger, met 24 platen (Haarlem: De Erven F. Bohn; Batavia: G. Kolff & Co., 1897). Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, Centrale Boekerij, Amsterdam. OCR-filename: 20260719_140140_DLP-134-De_verlaten_posten_in_Groot_Atjeh_Nemotron-OCR-v2_OCR.txt, p. 10; pp. 10, 14, 16, 18, 50, 52. Acknowledgement of sources. This article is a single consolidated account combining the material previously held in this entry with the account given in De verlaten posten in Groot-Atjeh (1897) by G. B. Hooijer. Dutch terminology has been rendered in English, the original Dutch being retained only in direct quotations and in bibliographic citations. Atjeh als land voor handel en bedrijf, by Dr. R. Broersma, Gebrs. Cohen, Utrecht, 1925, pp. 64-65, 73-75, 84, 124.

Land en Volk van Atjeh Vroeger en Nu, by J. Jongejans, Oud-Resident van het Gewest Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden, with a foreword by Dr. H. Colijn (Baarn: Hollandia Drukkerij N.V., c. 1938), pp. 386.