Mukim

Properties3
descriptionThe Acehnese parish — a grouping of gampongs sharing a Friday mosque (meusigit), led by an imeum mukim, forming the intermediate level between the village and the uleebalangship.
tagsconcept, government, administrative-unit, achehnese, religious, administration, sultanate, administrative, acheh, territorial, atjeh, aceh-war, 19th-century, zelfbestuur, sumatra, institution, division, moekim, mukim, mosque-group, imeum, oeléebalang-tjoet, colonial, governance, administrative-division, groot-atjeh, indigenous-governance, village-cluster, mukim-leader, office, imam, ecclesiastical-head, friday-service, comparative, mellema-1947, islam, territorial-division, land-law
aliasesthe Atjehnese mukim, moekim, Moekims, mukims, moeqim, ecclesiastical-administrative unit of Aceh, Mockim, Mockims, M., Moekimschap, Mukim system, Atjeh moekim, Imeum Mukim, Imam Mukim, Imeum, Acehnese Parish Head, imuem, imam, head of the moekim, oelèëbalang tjoet, Moekim and Imeum in Atjeh (Mellema 1947), Moekim as territorial parish in Atjeh, Imeum in Atjeh, Atjeh imeum, Moekim (Atjeh, Mellema account), Imeum (Atjeh, Territorial congregation in Atjeh, Friday-moske parish of Atjeh, Imam der III Moekims Daroe

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Mukim (also moekim; from Arabic moeqim “inhabitant”) was the intermediate administrative and religious unit of Acehnese society, sitting between the individual gampong (village) and the uleebalangship (territory). It was essentially a Friday-mosque association — a grouping of gampongs (typically four) lying sufficiently close to one another to form a single congregation for the Friday midday prayer around a common meuseugit (mosque). By Kreemer’s time, the moekim’s had become administrative bestuursressorten (administrative districts). The head of each moekim was the imeum (from Arabic imam), originally the leader of the Friday service.

Origin

When a number of gampongs lay sufficiently close to one another to admit of their being united into a single Friday association in accordance with the behests of Islamic law, they constructed a mosque (meusigit / meunasah), choosing the most central possible site. This might fall within one of the gampongs so united, or in a place lying without all the gampong enclosures. For some of these associations the term “district” would be the most applicable name; for others, whose gampongs rather resembled “wards,” the term “parish” corresponded most exactly — this being the comparison drawn by R.J. Wilkinson and adopted also in Penang and Province Wellesley under British administration.

Religious origin

The institution arose, the source explains, once Islam had taken root in Atjeh. The Shafiʿite school — “ook in Atjeh gehuldigd” — required for the Friday service the presence of at least forty (modified in Atjehsche practice to forty-four) “mannelijke, vrije, meerderjarige moekims” — male, free, adult congregants. To meet this requirement, heads who sought the support of the clergy — “hoofden die den steun van de geestelijkheid zochten en soms vrome rijke lieden” — saw to it that a meuseugit was built “op een centraalpunt” for several neighbouring gampongs (originally as a rule four), so that the prescribed number of worshippers could assemble within the lawful walking distance. The word moekim itself means only “ingezetene” — inhabitant — but it came to denote the entire congregational district.

The Imeum Mukim

The head of the mukim was the Imeum Mukim (imeum, from Arabic imam), who administered the secular as well as religious affairs of the mukim. He was the link between the keuchi’ (village headman) below and the uleebalang above, and was responsible for the maintenance of order across all the gampongs in his mukim. The imeum’s original task was “eene geheel of grootendeels godsdienstige taak” — wholly or mostly religious: ensuring that Allah’s law was upheld and the ritual prescriptions of Islam observed, doing for the meuseugit what the Teungkoe meunasah did for the village prayer-house.

Yet the institution soon degenerated — “het ambt der Imeums spoedig geheel ontaard” — as imeums strove “om over de gampongs, die tot hun Vrijdagskring behoorden, overal de macht van een oelèëbalang toe te eigenen.” Many became “adathoofden zonder eenig godsdienstig karakter” — adat chiefs without any religious character — and some “hebben het zelfs geheel tot de zelfstandigheid gebracht” — achieved full independence from the oelèëbalang. Originally the religious leader (Arab. imam) of the Friday service, the imeum later became a hereditary secular head (“Oelèëbalang tjout”) without religious character. By Kreemer’s time, imeum’s were adathoofden (customary heads) subordinate to Oelèëbalang’s or independent; there were ~58 imeum’s in Groot Atjèh plus 22 independent.

Constitutional position

Under a strong oelèëbalang, the imeum was “niet veel meer dan tusschenpersoon” — little more than an intermediary — but under a weak one an energetic imeum could place himself, “zooveel zijn eigen gebied betreft, bijna geheel in diens plaats.” The moekim, like the gampong, was retained in the Dutch administrative reorganisation as a cadastral and ecclesiastical subdivision: the three sagi’s of Groot-Atjeh were named for their nominal moekim counts — the XXII, XXVI, and XXV Moekims — designations “behouden gebleven ook nadat door toename van de bevolking, het aantal moekims is toegenomen.”

The three sagi’s of Groot Atjèh

The three sagi’s of Groot Atjèh were named for their number of moekim’s:

  1. XXII Moekim’s (“Twenty-two Moekim’s”)
  2. XXV Moekim’s (“Twenty-five Moekim’s”)
  3. XXVI Moekim’s (“Twenty-six Moekim’s”)

Evolution into administrative units

Originally religious-ecclesiastical units, the moekim’s evolved into administrative bestuursressorten (administrative districts). This evolution is the institutional embodiment of the broader Acehnese pattern by which religious-ecclesiastical offices were progressively absorbed into the adat-administrative order.

The VII Moekim’s Pidië

A notable moekim-federation was the VII Moekim’s Pidië (comprising Nitjah, Tandjong, Beurabö, Gögö, Peudaja, Koenjèt, Palöh, and Geuleudiëng), which was transferred from the Gouvernementsgebied of Groot Atjèh to the new afdeeling Pidië as part of the new onderafdeeling Padang Tidji under the bestuursindeeling van 1922.

Wakeuëh-districts

Some moekim’s were wakeuëh-districts (free-lordly domains) whose chiefs were withdrawn from the authority of the sagi-heads. Examples: in the XXV Moekim’s — Loeëng Bata, Pagar Ajé, Lam Sajoen; in the XXII Moekim’s — the III Moekim’s Keureukön; in the XXVI Moekim’s — Lho’ Goelöng, Tjadé’ Mön Batèë, Koeala Gigiëng (the latter now no longer existing).

Use of the Term Elsewhere

R.J. Wilkinson noted that in Penang and Province Wellesley the English Government had adopted the word mukim to designate the minor subdivisions of a district for administrative purposes — corresponding almost exactly to “parish.” In the Federated Malay States the word had the same modified meaning as in Acheh. The word mukim in Kedah bore the same modified meaning as in Acheh. Newbold (British Settlements in the Straits of Malacca II:20) observed that in the former place each mukim consisted originally of at least 44 families, a clear indication of the original intent of this territorial subdivision.

Additional account from De Islaam in Indonesië (1947) — the etiology of the territorial moekim

Mellema, in his comparative ethnological survey De Islaam in Indonesië (in het bijzonder op Java) (Amsterdam, 1947), gives an etiology of the moekim as a territorial parish that complements the Snouckian and De Buitenbezittingen accounts treated above. In his discussion of the distinction between the moskee (the Friday mosque) and the langgar (the prayer-house without Friday service), Mellema observes that the Muslim law requires the Friday service to be held only where at least forty adult male Muslims are settled as permanent residents (moekim in the canonical sense). In Atjeh, he records, it could happen that several desa’s joined together — “dat verschillende desa’s zich aaneensloten om gezamenlijk een moskee met Vrijdagsdienst te kunnen houden” — to maintain, jointly, a mosque with a Friday service. From this cooperation “zijn nieuwe territoriale gemeenten ontstaan, eveneens met de naam moekim aangeduid” — new territorial communes arose, likewise designated by the name moekim — at the head of which stood an imeum, “Atjeh’s voor imaam.” The distinctive contribution of Mellema’s account is the canonical-genetic framing: the territorial moekim arises, in his presentation, as an institutional solution to the canonical requirement of the Friday-service quorum of forty resident men. The term moekim thus undergoes a semantic extension — from its canonical sense of “permanent resident” to its Atjehnese sense of “territorial congregation.”

Account from Schets eener parlementaire geschiedenis (1955)

The following account is drawn from the parliamentary history of the Dutch Second Chamber as narrated by Vermeulen in the colonial section of the 1955 fourth revised edition of Rengers’s *Schets*.

The Mukim — Acehnese mukim — is, in the source’s narrative, the Atjehnese territorial unit consisting of a group of kampongs (villages) sharing a single mosque. The mukim is the intermediate unit of the Atjehnese territorial hierarchy: above the kampong, below the uléebalang territory. Three or more mukim’s form a landschap (territory) under an uléebalang.

The Snouck Hurgronje analysis

The source preserves the Snouck Hurgronje analysis of Atjehnese social structure: “De Atjehers leven, evenals de meeste Indonesische volken, in dorpen, kampongs. Een groep kampongs die één moskee tot haar beschikking heeft, is een mukim. Drie of meer van deze mukim’s vormen een landschap onder een uléebalang” (The Atjehnese live, like most Indonesian peoples, in villages, kampongs. A group of kampongs that has one mosque at its disposal is a mukim. Three or more of these mukim’s form a territory under an uléebalang). The mukim is, in the Snouck analysis, the religiously-defined unit of Atjehnese territorial structure.

The religious definition

The mukim’s defining feature — the shared mosque — gives the unit its religious character. The Snouck analysis places the mukim at the intersection of territorial and religious organisation: the unit is both a group of villages and the congregation of a single mosque.

The territorial hierarchy

The Snouck analysis records the Atjehnese territorial hierarchy as: kampong (village) → mukim (mosque-group) → landschap (uléebalang territory) → sagi (federation of uléebalang territories). The mukim is the second level of this four-level hierarchy.

Significance

The mukim is, in the Snouck Hurgronje analysis preserved by the source, the religiously-defined intermediate unit of Atjehnese territorial structure. The 1892 Snouck Hurgronje advice — that the sultan’s party was to be ignored and the uléebalangs struck into submission — was based on this analysis.

Account from De onderwerping van Atjeh (Van Heutsz, 1893) — the Sagi federations and the campaigns of 1878–1879

Van Heutsz’s 1893 tract treats the mukim — in Van Heutsz’s spelling Moekim, plural Moekims — as the building-block of the Sagi federations of Groot-Atjeh: the XXII Moekims (twenty-two mukims), the XXV Moekims (twenty-five mukims), and the XXVI Moekims (twenty-six mukims), the three territorial leagues that constituted the ancient core of the Acehnese sultanate and that became, in Van Heutsz’s narrative, the operational targets of the Van der Heijden campaigns of 1878–1879. The use of “Moekims” in the names of administrative districts persisted under Dutch colonial rule: the IV Moekims, the VI Moekims, the VII Moekims, the IX Moekims, the XIII Moekim Toengkoep, the III Moekims Lam Bensoë — the named sub-federations of mukims within the broader Sagi structure — survived as the recognized subdivisions of Groot-Atjeh into the Zelfbestuur period and into the 1930 compilation’s landschap nomenclature.

The Sagi federations and the campaigns of 1878–1879

In Groot-Atjeh the mukims were aggregated into three Sagi federations — the XXII Moekims, the XXV Moekims, and the XXVI Moekims — each headed by a panglima sagi and collectively constituting the ancient core of the Acehnese sultanate. The three Sagi’s were the constitutional units through which the sultan’s authority had historically been mediated, and they became, in Van Heutsz’s 1893 narrative, the operational targets of the Van der Heijden campaigns of 1878–1879. The campaign against the XXII Moekims opened in July 1878; “binnen drie maanden na den aanvang van den eersten veldtocht in de XXII Moekims, de onderwerping van Habib Abdoel Rachman en van Tekoe Moeda Baid op den 13em October 1878 volgde” — within three months of the opening of the first campaign in the XXII Moekims, the submission of Habib Abdoel Rachman and of Tekoe Moeda Baid on the 13th October 1878 followed. The campaign against the XXVI Moekims followed in 1879, culminating in the tocht naar Selimoen of September 1879. Van Heutsz’s verdict on the chronology is sweeping:

“Met welken schitterenden uitslag onze veldtochten in de Sagi’s XXII en XXVI bekroond werden, wij weten het allen”.

— “With what brilliant success our campaigns in the Sagi’s XXII and XXVI were crowned, we all know it.” The mukim-based Sagi federation was thus the operational unit of the Van der Heijden conquest: the named aggregates of mukims — XXII, XXV, XXVI — that the Dutch army reduced, one Sagi at a time, in the campaigns of 1878–1879.

Sub-federations of mukims within the Sagi’s

Within the Sagi’s, smaller sub-federations of mukims — the IV Moekims, the VI Moekims, the VII Moekims, the IX Moekims, the XIII Moekim Toengkoep, the III Moekims Lam Bensoë, the III Moekims Kerkoen, the III Moekims Lamgoegoeb — were the operational units of oeleebalang authority. Van Heutsz records the principal sub-federations and their hoeloebalang: the machtige hoofd Tekoe Moeda Baid of the VII Moekims van de Sagi XXII Moekims — the most powerful chief of the XXII Moekims, whose March 1877 negotiations with the Dutch were the immediate occasion of G.-G. van Lansberge’s verzoeningspolitiek; the hoeloebalang of the IX Moekims der XXV (Tekoe Nek Poerba Wangsa, later Tengkoe Kota Karang); the hoeloebalang of the VI Moekims der Sagi XXV (T. Nanta Setia Radja of Lampisang); the hoeloebalang of the XIII Moekim Toengkoep (T. Lamgoegoeb Njaq Abas); the hoeloebalang of the III Moekims Lamgoegoeb (also T. Lamgoegoeb); the hoeloebalang of the IV Moekims (the source of the Hadji Abdoel Rachman report of March 1877). The sub-federation of mukims was thus the operational unit of oeleebalang authority within the Sagi — the named aggregate of mukims held by a single hoeloebalang and recognised as his landschap.

The persistence of “Moekims” in the Zelfbestuur-period nomenclature

The use of “Moekims” in the names of administrative districts persisted under Dutch colonial rule into the Zelfbestuur period. The Inhoud (table of contents) of the 1930 compilation records the sub-federation nomenclature in the signatory clauses: Reg. No. 13 (the Tjalang blanke wapenen regulation of 8 January 1927) is issued by ten oeleebalang of the onderafdeeling Tjalang, including the oeleebalang of “III Mockins Lam Bensoë” (III Moekims Lam Beusoë). The 1930 compilation’s Inhoud likewise names “IV Moekims” in the Reg. No. 9a signatory list. The persistence of the mukim-based nomenclature in the Zelfbestuur-period regulations reflects the survival of the mukim as the operational unit of oeleebalang authority — the named aggregate of mukims held by a single oeleebalang and recognised as his landschap under the Korte Verklaring. The mukim, in this sense, survived the 1873–1904 war and the 1898-onward Zelfbestuur imposition as the basic territorial-religious unit of Acehnese society — the building-block of the Sagi federations of Groot-Atjeh and the named sub-federation of the Zelfbestuur-period landschap.

Account from Atjeh by H.C. Zentgraff (1938)

Zentgraff uses mukim numbers as standard place-identifiers throughout Atjeh. The VII Moekims Ateuë in Groot-Atjeh was Habib Teupin Wan’s home territory: hij hoorde eigenlijk thuis in de VII Moekims Ateuë, Groot-Atjeh, doch toen de Kompeuni daar het groote werk volbracht trok hij zich terug. The governor’s secret brief of 17 July 1893, no. 559/K — cited in the chapter on Snouck Hurgronje’s Verslag — listed salaries paid to oeléëbalangs of IX Moekims outside the occupied territory. The XXVI Moekims appear in the Tiro-oelama’s ultimatum letter. The IV Moekims of the Lhong area were burned during the Lhong punitive expedition in April 1897: den 25en werd Boekit Seboen genomen en een gedeelte van de IV Moekims verbrand, o.a. het huis van Oemar’s vrouw te Anak Paja.

In the Boven-Wojla, the Kawaj XII federation — Pameuë, Geumpang, Tangsé, Anoë en Ara — was the country of Potjoet Barin and the 2e Divisie; aan de namen merkt ge dat het hier gaat om het hart van het centrale bergland. The VII Moekims Baët appear in the djahat list: de djahat uit kampong L. Ara Toenoeng (VII Moekims Baët).

Atjeh, door H.C. Zentgraff. Gedrukt bij Drukkerij “De Unie”, 1938, Batavia.

Account from Een Vaderlandsch Belang by H. Borel (1878)

The mukim (Acehnese moekim) was the basic Atjehnese territorial subdivision — a mosque-centred parish, comprising a number of kampongs around a central mesigit (mosque), and forming the building-block of the larger sagi (federation of mukims). The mukims of Groot-Atjeh are the geographic units of Borel’s narrative: the VI Moekims, IV Moekims, IX Moekims, XXII Moekims, XXV Moekims, XXVI Moekims and III Moekims are all federations of mukims, named by the number of mukims they contained.

The Mosque-Centred Parish

The mukim was, in Borel’s account, the basic Atjehnese territorial subdivision. Each mukim was centred on a mesigit (mosque) — the place of worship, the seat of the local religious authority, and the focal point of the community’s social and political life. The mukim comprised a number of kampongs — typically a few to a dozen — whose inhabitants worshipped at the central mesigit and whose affairs were regulated by the local religious and secular heads. The mukim was, in effect, the Atjehnese equivalent of the European parish — a territorial unit defined by religious affiliation rather than by secular jurisdiction. The mesigit was often a stone building — like the Mesigit of the Kraton, the Longbatta-Mesigit or the gebedenhuis at Mandarsa Poeti — and could serve, in time of war, as a strongpoint around which a benteng was constructed. The mukim’s religious character — its association with the mosque and with the local religious authority — gave the Atjehnese resistance a religious dimension that the Dutch consistently underestimated.

The Sagi: Federation of Mukims

The mukims of Groot-Atjeh were grouped into larger federations called sagi’s — each sagi comprising a number of mukims, named by the number: the VI Moekims (six mukims), the IV Moekims (four mukims), the IX Moekims (nine mukims), the XXII Moekims (twenty-two mukims), the XXV Moekims (twenty-five mukims), the XXVI Moekims (twenty-six mukims), the III Moekims (three mukims). Each sagi was a political federation of mukims, with its own heads (the toekoe or opperhoofd) and its own collective military capability. The sagi was, in effect, the Atjehnese equivalent of the European county or canton — a political federation of smaller territorial units. The sagi’s of Groot-Atjeh were the principal opponents of the Dutch in the Atjeh-oorlog: the XXII Moekims was “de kern van Atjeh’s weerstandsvermogen” — the densest-populated Sagi, containing the Sultan’s voorraadschuren and the most hostile chiefs; the VI Moekims was led by Toekoe Nanta, the “onzen ijverigen tegenstander,” whose gebied was the single weak point of the stelling-Pel between Oeleh Leh and Soerian.

The Mukims in the War

The mukims and sagi’s of Groot-Atjeh are the geographic units of Borel’s narrative. The great offensive of December 1875 – February 1876 under generaal Pel was directed against the VI, IV and IX Moekims — the sagi’s that flanked the stelling-Pel and that had to be conquered before the projected afsluitingslinie from the Kroeng Raba to the Kroeng Raya could be completed. The enemy breakthrough of June 1878 took place in the IV, VI and IX Moekims — the sagi’s that had been conquered by Pel and that the enemy re-entered during van der Heijden’s absence at Gedoeng. The XXII Moekims — never permanently occupied — was the target of Borel’s recommended repeated tuchtigingen by the proposed Indische Brigade. The XXVI Moekims — the other main Sagi of Groot-Atjeh — Borel predicted would submit without needing force, once the XXII Moekims had been tamed. The mukim and the sagi were thus the territorial units through which the Atjeh-oorlog was fought, and the conquest or submission of each sagi was, in Borel’s account, a strategic objective of the campaign.

Account in Hooijer’s De verlaten posten in Groot-Atjeh (1897)

Imam

An imam was the religious head of a moekim in Groot-Atjeh, an office that in the period described by G. B. Hooijer could also carry effective military leadership against the Netherlands.

Toekoe Rajoet

The single named holder of the office in De verlaten posten in Groot-Atjeh is Toekoe Rajoet, Imam der III Moekims Daroe, whose attacks on Dutch transports moving between Tjot Goeë and Biloel were the stated reason for the erection of the temporary intermediate post of Lam Koenjit on 4 July 1894.

Mukim

A moekim — Arabic mukim — was the basic territorial and religious division of Atjeh, a district grouping several kampongs (villages) around a congregational mosque, and the unit by which the administrative geography of Groot-Atjeh is expressed throughout De verlaten posten in Groot-Atjeh.

The moekims of Hooijer’s narrative

Groups of moekims named by G. B. Hooijer include the IX Moekims, whose head was Toekoe Nja Mohammad; the IV Moekims and VI Moekims, where Potjoet Nja Din was powerful; the XXV Moekims, formed by the territories of Teukoe Oemar and Toekoe Nja Mohammad together; the XXVI Moekims under Toekoe Nja Banta; the XXII Moekims under the young Panglima Polim with Toekoe Moeda Soleiman as guardian; the XIII Moekims Toengkoeb under T. Tjoet Toengkoeb; the VII Moekims under Toekoe Moeda Baid; and the III Moekims Daroe whose imam was T. Rajoet.

Clearance moekim by moekim

The Dutch alliance policy proceeded by clearing whole groups of moekims of the Moslemin in turn: first the IX Moekims and the XXV Moekims by Teukoe Oemar in 1893, then the XXVI Moekims from September 1893, then the eastern part of the XXII Moekims from November 1893. Posts were sited in part to separate one group from another: Lam Koenjit, with Biloel and Tjot Goeë, served to divide the XXII Moekims more effectively from the IX Moekims.

Sagi, Peleebalangschap, Groot-Atjeh, F. W. A. L. de Nijs, G. F. B. Watrin, G. J. van Dongen, Inlandsch Bestuur, Erfelijkheid in Atjeh hoofd appointments, Civiel Gezaghebber, Rechtstreeks bestuurd gebied

Mukim politics in 1874

Jan van Swieten’s 1879 account used mukim as a political as well as territorial category during the Aceh War. After the Capture of the Kraton of Aceh, he recorded approaches from leaders of the XXV Mukim, III Mukim, and XXVI Mukim, illustrating how the Dutch attempted to translate military occupation into separate local adhesions.

Account from Het recht op den grond in Atjeh (D. W. N. de Boer, 1931) — the imeum and the charge on clearance

D. W. N. de Boer used the position of the imeum to demonstrate the concentration of authority in the hands of the oeléëbalang in matters of land. In Atjeh the clearer of waste ground paid a small tariffed recognition, the haq radja taléë — so named because the radja measured out the land to him with a rope (taléë, Malay tali) — and that payment went to the territorial chief.

That the radja taléë was paid to the oeléëbalang, and not to the village head or to another chief subordinate to him — “den Imeum bijv.,” the imeum for instance — was, De Boer argued, “alweer een bewijs van de machtsconcentratie bij het Landschapshoofd,” yet another proof of the concentration of power in the head of the landschap. He supported the point with De Atjehers, Vol. I, p. 91 ff.: “De oeleëbalangs zijn de heeren des lands, de territoriale hoofden bij uitnemendheid; zij worden dan ook in de boeken, zoowel als in de gesproken taal de radja’s van hun gebied genoemd” — the oeléëbalangs are the lords of the land, the territorial chiefs par excellence; they are accordingly called, in the books as in the spoken language, the radja’s of their territory.

The observation belongs to De Boer’s larger thesis that neither the gampong nor any intermediate body played a part in Atjehnese rights in land, the whole of the beschikkingsrecht being concentrated in the territorial chief.

See Also

Account from Land en Volk van Atjeh Vroeger en Nu

Not explicitly defined in pages 1-70, but related to the sagi and gampong system that the Sagihoofd (e.g., Teukoe Panglima PolemNot explicitly defined in this page range but referenced indirectly as Acehnese administrative unit.

Source: J. Jongejans, Land en Volk van Atjeh Vroeger en Nu (Baarn: Hollandia Drukkerij N.V., c. 1938), pp. —.

Sources

The Achehnese, Vol. I, by Dr. C. Snouck Hurgronje, translated by A.W.S. O’Sullivan, indexed by R.J. Wilkinson. Leyden: E.J. Brill, 1906. Chapter I, §§ 5–6, pp. 58–88.

De Buitenbezittingen, Deel II, Aflevering 2: Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden, bewerkt door het Encyclopaedisch Bureau, Mededeelingen van het Bureau voor de Bestuurszaken der Buitenbezittingen (Weltevreden: Landsdrukkerij, 1917), pp. 42–44. Citing C. Snouck Hurgronje, De Atjehers, Vol. I, pp. 83–84, 91.

De Islaam in Indonesië (in het bijzonder op Java), by Drs. R. L. Mellema. Mededeling No. LXXVII, Afd. Volkenkunde No. 25. Amsterdam: Koninklijke Vereniging “Indisch Instituut,” 1947. “Verschil tussen moskee en langgar,” p. 16; and Register, s.v. Moekim “(gebiedsdeel in Atjeh).”

Atjèh. Algemeen samenvattend overzicht van land en volk van Atjèh en onderhoorigheden, door J. Kreemer, Archivaris van het Atjèh Instituut. Tweede Deel. Leiden: N.V. Boekhandel en Drukkerij voorheen E.J. Brill, 1923. Identifier: Delpher MMKB02B:000001798; PPN 395084288. Koninklijke Bibliotheek.

Nederlanders over de Zeeën: 350 Jaar geschiedenis van Nederland buitengaats, onder redactie van Dr. H. J. de Graaf, met medewerking van Prof. G. Gonggrijp, W. R. Menkman en Prof. Jhr Dr P. J. van Winter, 2e geheel herziene druk (Utrecht: W. de Haan N.V., MCMLV), p. 217.

De onderwerping van Atjeh, door J. B. van Heutsz, Majoor der Infanterie, gewezen Chef van den Staf in Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden. ‘s-Gravenhage: De Gebroeders van Cleef; Batavia: G. Kolff en Co., 1893, esp. pp. 13, 17, 21–23, 25, 37 (and pp. 47–49, 86–88, 97–100, on the Sagi federations and the Van der Heijden campaigns of 1878–1879). OCR-filename: 20260718_105749_DLP-107-De_onderwerping_van_Atjeh_Nemotron-OCR-v2_OCR.txt.

Zelfbestuursverordeningen Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden. Serie A No. 9 of the Mededeelingen van de Afdeeling Bestuurszaken der Buitengewesen van het Departement van Binnenlandsch Bestuur. Weltevreden: Landsdrukkerij, 1930, passim (esp. Reg. No. 13 signatory clause, “III Mockins Lam Bensoë”, and Reg. No. 9a signatory clause, “IV Moekims”). OCR-filename: 20260719_030404_DLP-112-Zelfbestuursverordeningen_Atjeh_en_onderhoorigheden_Nemotron-OCR-v2_OCR.txt. Verkenningen in Atjeh, by Dr. R. Broersma (De Locomotief, October 1923), chapters XIII, XV, ‘Het groote rijstland Pidië’ and ‘Groot-Atjeh’, pp. 90, 101. ATJEH ‘96, door A. Kruisheer, Kapitein der Infanterie O.I.L., met 2 kaarten en 4 portretten (Weltevreden: N.V. Boekhandel Visser & Co, 1913). Instituut Kern, Leiden. OCR-filename: 20260715_163243_DLP-89-Atjeh_96_Met_2_kaarten_en4_DOORA_KRUISHEER_Kapiteinder_Infanterie_nemoretriever-ocr-v1_OCR.txt, pp. 19–20, 22, 67, 72, 76–77, 80, 92–93, 117, 122, 138, 141–142, 145, 148, 165, 175, 179, 181, 213, 231–232, 242, 292, 296, 319, 348. Verkenningen in Atjeh, by Dr. R. Broersma (De Locomotief, October 1923); Atjeh Patchouli-Olie, by Ir. W. Spoon (1932), where applicable. Generaal Swart, Pacificator van Atjeh (“General Swart, Pacifier of Atjeh”), by M. H. du Croo, Colonel K.N.I.L. (retired), with the collaboration of H. J. Schmidt, Titular Colonel K.N.I.L. (retired), with a foreword by His Excellency Lieutenant-General K.N.I.L. (retired) G. K. Dijkstra (Maastricht: N.V. Leiter-Nypels, 1943), Chapter XI, XII, XIII. Notulen der bestuursvergaderingen ter bespreking van de verdere voorbereiding eener hervorming van het bestuurswezen in Nederlandsch-Indië (Batavia: Landsdrukkerij, 1914), pp. 118, 128-129. Verkenningen in Atjeh, by Dr. R. Broersma (De Locomotief, October 1923), chapters XIII, XV, ‘Het groote rijstland Pidië’ and ‘Groot-Atjeh’, pp. 90, 94, 101. De Islaam in Indonesië (in het bijzonder op Java), by Drs. R. L. Mellema. Mededeling No. LXXVII, Afd. Volkenkunde No. 25. Amsterdam: Koninklijke Vereniging “Indisch Instituut,” 1947. “Verschil tussen moskee en langgar,” p. 16; and Register, s.v. Imeum “(in Atjeh hoofd van een moekim)” and Moekim “(gebiedsdeel in Atjeh).”

Onze vestiging in Atjeh, critisch beschreven, by G. F. W. Borel, Kapitein der Artillerie. ‘s-Gravenhage: D. A. Thieme, 1878. pp. 24, 57, 62, 65, 93, 103, 131, 176, 200, 228, 246, 263, 287–289, 323–325, 354.

De verlaten posten in Groot-Atjeh, door G. B. Hooijer, Gep. Luit.-Kolonel O. I. Leger, met 24 platen (Haarlem: De Erven F. Bohn; Batavia: G. Kolff & Co., 1897). Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, Centrale Boekerij, Amsterdam. OCR-filename: 20260719_140140_DLP-134-De_verlaten_posten_in_Groot_Atjeh_Nemotron-OCR-v2_OCR.txt, p. 14; pp. 9, 14, 16, 38, 50.

Acknowledgement of sources. This article is a single consolidated account combining the material previously held in this entry with the account given in De verlaten posten in Groot-Atjeh (1897) by G. B. Hooijer. Dutch terminology has been rendered in English, the original Dutch being retained only in direct quotations and in bibliographic citations.

De Geconcentreerde Stelling in Groot-Atjeh, ‘s-Gravenhage: De Gebroeders Van Cleef, 1885, p. 17.

De waarheid over onze vestiging in Atjeh: met eene kaart van Atjeh en een plan van den Kraton, by J. van Swieten (Zalt-Bommel: Joh. Noman en Zoon, 1879), pp. 1–465.

Het recht op den grond in Atjeh (“The Right to the Soil in Atjeh”), by D. W. N. de Boer, dated Scheveningen, November 1931, pp. 59-80. Offprint DLP-141, Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, ‘s-Gravenhage; Bibliotheek KITLV accession 0060 4460 60 081470 428.

Land en Volk van Atjeh Vroeger en Nu, by J. Jongejans, Oud-Resident van het Gewest Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden, with a foreword by Dr. H. Colijn (Baarn: Hollandia Drukkerij N.V., c. 1938), pp. —.

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